Feedstock For Synthesis Of Biodiesel Research Articles

Biodiesel Production from the Marine Alga Nannochloropsis oceanica Grown on Yeast Wastewater and the Effect on Its Biochemical Composition and Gene Expression.

Microalgae-based biodiesel synthesis is currently not commercially viable due to the high costs of culture realizations and low lipid yields. The main objective of the current study was to determine the possibility of growing Nannochloropsis oceanica on Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast wastewater for biodiesel generation at an economical rate. N. oceanica was grown in Guillard F/2 synthetic medium and three dilutions of yeast wastewater (1, 1.25, and 1.5%). Biodiesel properties, in addition to carbohydrate, protein, lipid, dry weight, biomass, lipid productivity, amino acids, and fatty acid methyl ester (FAMEs) content, were analyzed and the quality of the produced biodiesel is assessed. The data revealed the response of N. oceanica to nitrogen-deficiency in the three dilutions of yeast wastewater. N. oceanica in Y2 (1.25%) yeast wastewater dilution exhibited the highest total carbohydrate and lipid percentages (21.19% and 41.97%, respectively), and the highest lipid productivity (52.46 mg L-1 day -1) under nitrogen deficiency in yeast wastewater. The fatty acids profile shows that N. oceanica cultivated in Y2 (1.25%) wastewater dilution provides a significant level of TSFA (47.42%) and can be used as a feedstock for biodiesel synthesis. In addition, N. oceanica responded to nitrogen shortage in wastewater dilutions by upregulating the gene encoding delta-9 fatty acid desaturase (Δ9FAD). As a result, the oleic and palmitoleic acid levels increased in the fatty acid profile of Y2 yeast wastewater dilution, highlighting the increased activity of Δ9FAD enzyme in transforming stearic acid and palmitic acid into oleic acid and palmitoleic acid. This study proved that the Y2 (1.25%) yeast wastewater dilution can be utilized as a growth medium for improving the quantity of specific fatty acids and lipid productivity in N. oceanica that affect biodiesel quality to satisfy global biodiesel requirements.

Acacia furnesiana plant as a novel green source for the synthesis of NiFe2O4 magnetic nanocatalyst and as feedstock for sustainable high quality biofuel production

Magnetic nanoparticles as heterogeneous catalysts could open up new possibilities for the development of eco-friendly biodiesel production. In the present study, the Acacia furnesiana (A. furnesiana) fruit component namely pods and seeds are successfully employed as low-cost and environmentally-safe starting materials for the synthesis of NiFe2O4 NPs and also as feedstock for biodiesel synthesis respectively. Interestingly, A. furnesiana seed extract is utilized for the first time as a feed stock for the biodiesel production using NiFe2O4 NPs as catalyst. Using response surface methodology and linear regression, the optimum conditions for the biodiesel production using NiFe2O4 catalyst is obtained. An excellent A. furnesiana oil methyl ester (AFOME)/biodiesel yield of 93.1% is achieved with 4.61 wt% of NiFe2O4 loading, 14:1 M ratio of methanol to oil, 53 min reaction time and at a temperature of 65 °C. The NiFe2O4 catalyst after transesterification reaction is recovered 100% using a permanent magnet and can be reused up to four cycles with > 80% AFOME yield at the end of 4th cycle. The activation energy for AFOME production is found to be ∼ 44.54 kJ/mol from kinetic study and, the thermodynamic investigation revealed that the enthalpy and entropy of the system is ∼ 27.49 kJ/mol and −0.18 kJ mol/k, respectively.

Experimental Evaluation of Oil Extraction from South African <i>Melia azedarach</i> Seeds as Feedstock for Biodiesel Synthesis

Global increase in fuel prices and the associated problem of harmful emissions from combustion of fossil fuels has necessitated the need for more energy sources to sustain energy security and mitigate the negative environmental implications from the continuous use of petroleum diesel. This research is primarily focused on the production of biodiesel from Melia azedarach oil, which has not been much explored as a feedstock for diesel substitute. In consideration of the nutritional demands for edible oil seeds, the use of edible vegetable stock to produce biodiesel raises major ethical concerns with non-edible oil seeds presenting more feasible solution to energy crises. Oil was extracted from Melia azedarach seeds by exploring both mechanical and chemical methods. Biodiesel was produced from the extracted oil via alkali alcoholysis. An innovative Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy (UV-VIS) was adopted as a process tracking mechanism for biodiesel production. An oil yield of 4.32% of crude oil was extracted using n-hexane under an extraction time of 24h and temperature of 55°C. Esterification parameters of 45:1 Molar concentration of alcohol to oil, reaction temperature of 53°C, a reaction time of 50 mins and concentrated sulphuric acid weight fraction of 5% gave a free fatty acid conversion of 89.37%. Based on the results obtained, the seed oil has been established as a promising feedstock with promising efficiency for biodiesel production. However, large scale extraction of oil from the seed for industrial production of biodiesel must be further investigated.

Utilization of Wheat Bran Acid Hydrolysate by Rhodotorula mucilaginosa Y-MG1 for Microbial Lipid Production as Feedstock for Biodiesel Synthesis.

The lignocellulosic hydrolysate was used as the fermentation feedstock of Rhodotorula mucilaginosa Y-MG1 for the production of microbial lipids as the potential raw material for biodiesel synthesis. On synthetic media and under nitrogen-limiting condition, the Y-MG1 strain produces 2.13 g/L of lipids corresponding to 32.7% of lipid content. This strain was able to assimilate a wide range of substrates, especially C5 and C6 sugars as well as glycerol and sucrose. Fatty acid composition shows a divergence depending on the nature of used carbon source with a predominance of oleic acid or linoleic acid. An effective hydrolysis process, based on diluted acid treatment, was established for providing the maximum of fermentable sugars from different characterized lignocellulosic wastes. The highest yield of reducing sugars (56.6 g/L) could be achieved when wheat bran was used as the raw material. Hydrolysate detoxification step was not required in this study since the Y-MG1 strain was shown to grow and produce lipids in the presence of inhibitors and without the addition of external elements. Operating by controlled fed-batch fermentation yielded a dry biomass and oil yield of up to 11 g/L and 38.7% (w/w), respectively. The relative fatty acid composition showed the presence of increased levels of monounsaturated (66.8%) and saturated (23.4%) fatty acids in lipids of Y-MG1 grown on wheat bran. The predictive determination of biodiesel properties suggests that this oil may effectively be used for biodiesel production.

Simplex Lattice Design Method for the Optimization of Non-Edible Oils Mixture Composition as Feedstock for Biodiesel Synthesis Using Reactive Distillation

The diminished of fossil fuel becomes a critical issue today. Thus, it is essential to develop alternative energy resources which are renewable and environmental friendly. Among the prospective alternative is biodiesel. Biodiesel (fatty acid methyl ester) is produced by combining vegetable oils with alcohol via transestefication reaction. To avoid conflict between food and energy needs, the uses of non-edible oils as raw material is suggested. Commonly, biodiesel synthesis employs a single type of vegetable oil feed-stock. The dependency on a certain feed-stock could cause an increasing price due to the high demand and low supply. Thus, it is beneficial to apply diversification by employing multiple feed-stocks or mixture of non-edible oils as biodiesel feedstocks. However, the best composition of the multiple feed­stocks is needed to obtain the optimum yield of biodiesel. In this work, mixture of non-edible oils, i.e. jatropha, nyamplung (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) seed, and used cooking oils were applied as biodiesel feedstocks. Non-edible oils are cheap but have high free fatty acid (FFA). The high FFA is not favorable for the alkaline-catalyzed transesterification since it will cause undesired saponification reaction and lower biodiesel yield. Hence, pretreatment to reduce FFA content is crucial prior to transesterification. In this work, esterification of FFA in vegetable oils mixture (jatropha, nyamplung, and used cooking oils) with methanol using reactive distillation in the presence of SnCl2 catalyst was conducted as pretreatment step of biodiesel production. Various compositions of the oils mixture were employed. To determine the best formulation of feed-stocks, Simplex Lattice Design Method (SLDM) was used for the optimization of non-edible oils mixture composition as feedstock for biodiesel synthesis using reactive distillation. The prediction using SLDM was validated with the experimental data. It was found that the optimal composition of oil mixture was the mixture contains 37.291 v/v% jatropha oil + 37.709 v/v% nyamplung oil + 25 v/v% used cooking oil. This composition of feedstocks revealed the FFA conversion of 85.93% (prediction) and 86.03% (experiment). The desirability value was 0.937 which indicated the validity of the SLDM optimization method. The esterified oil mixture was then underwent transesterification reaction to produce biodiesel. The yield of biodiesel demonstrated 99.65 % purity and density of 884 kg/m3.

Biodiesel synthesis from microalgae (Anabaena PCC 7120) by using barium titanium oxide (Ba2TiO4) solid base catalyst

In this study, Anabaena PCC 7120 microalgae is used as feedstock for biodiesel synthesis. Anabaena 7120 was cultivated in a closed photobioreactor. Oil was extracted by cell disruption process and purified by degumming process. Anabaena oil was characterized by GCMS spectroscopy. Barium titanium oxide (Ba2TiO4) heterogeneous catalyst was prepared by wet impregnation process and characterized through various techniques such as TGA, XRD, FTIR, HR-SEM, EDX and surface area analyzer. Basicity of synthesized catalyst was calculated by Hammett indicator titration method. The synthesized Ba2TiO4 was used in transesterification of Anabaena oil for biodiesel production and it was reused up to six cycles. The highest FAME conversion from anabaena oil was found to be 98.41% under optimized condition of 1:18 M ratio (oil:methanol), 3.5 wt% of catalyst loading and 180 min of reaction time at 65 °C temperature and 400 rpm stirring speed.

Enzymatic fatty acid ethyl esters synthesis using acid soybean oil and liquid lipase formulation

Acid oils represent a low-cost feedstock for biodiesel synthesis. The aim of this work was to study a single-step enzymatic esterification and transesterification process for fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs) production employing acid oils, ethanol, and liquid lipase formulation. The effects of lipase source (CALB, Palatase 20000 L, Lipolase 100 L, and Callera Trans L), temperature and enzyme ratio were studied in the transesterification of refined soybean oil with ethanol. The highest yield esters content (97%) was obtained at 30 °C with 10% vol/vol of Lipolase 100 L. The ethanolysis of acid soybean oil, using soybean oils with different acid contents (acid value (AV): 8.5, 50, and 90), was investigated using 10% vol/vol of lipase at 30 °C. The highest esters content (71%) was obtained employing acid oil with AV 50 and Palatase 20,000 L. The results showed the significant performance of soluble lipases in transesterification reactions of acid oils aiming for FAEEs synthesis.

Heterogeneous Transesterification of Garcenia gummi gutta Oil Using t-ZrO2: A Novel Feedstock for Biodiesel Synthesis and Fuel Property Evaluation

Heterogeneous Transesterification of Garcenia gummi gutta Oil Using t-ZrO2: A Novel Feedstock for Biodiesel Synthesis and Fuel Property Evaluation

Effect of media composition and light supply on biomass, lipid content and FAME profile for quality biofuel production from Scenedesmus abundans

Microalgae have a potential to serve as a renewable feedstock for synthesis of biodiesel, rich in saturated and unsaturated fatty acids and valuable biomolecules. Role of several parameters such as nutrient composition, light intensity, photoperiod and pH on growth and lipid productivity was investigated. A freshwater green microalga Scenedesmus abundans was selected as a potential candidate for production of biodiesel and its growth conditions were optimized for enhanced lipid accumulation. The lipid content of the strain has been increased up to about 48% when grown in modified Fogg’s medium at pH 8 with light intensity of 40.5μmolm−2s−1 and photoperiod of 16h light:8h dark. Lipids were transesterified and the fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) thus obtained were analyzed by GC–MS. They possess more than 80% of C16 to C18 fatty acids, which are major precursors for biodiesel production. The FAME consisted of saturated (47.83%), monounsaturated (26.38%) and polyunsaturated (25.20%) fatty acids. Several important biodiesel quality parameters were predicted and compared to the corresponding specifications in the American and European biodiesel standards. The study opens up new vistas for utilization of the microalga, S. abundans for efficient production of biodiesel.

Preparation of Activated Carbon from Walnut Shell Doped La and Ca Catalyst for Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil

Solid acid (heterogeneous) catalysts have a unique advantage in esterification and transesterification reactions which enhances the use of high acid value oil to be used as feedstock for synthesis of biodiesel. Activated carbon was prepared from walnut shell and activated in two step, first step is (thermal) physical activation calcination at 400 °C. Second step is chemical activation, the Ac were treated phosphoric acid in constant flow of nitrogen. The results obtained that the treated carbon show the amazing physicochemical properties (high surface area, high porosity and high acidity)

Extrication of biodiesel feedstock from early stage of food waste liquefaction

Biodiesel is commonly produced from vegetable oils, mostly edible and more expensive than petroleum diesel. By considering the cost of the conversion processes, cheap feedstock such as triglycerides and fatty acids (FA) extracted from early stage of food waste liquefaction has become a better choice than vegetable oils, as it could provide high yield of biodiesel without any compromise to food supply and other resources. In this study, FA from early stage of food waste liquefaction was extracted and tested for use as feedstock for biodiesel synthesis. The raw material was not pretreated but extraction was done by dry and wet methods. It was found that wet method could minimized the lost of short and medium-chained FA as well as reducing the number of steps required, thus, yielding higher amount of FA as feedstock. The effects of mixing, methanol ratio, reaction time and catalyst content were investigated for the acid-catalyzed esterification. The maximum biodiesel conversion obtained was 97.4 %.

Numerical simulation of mixing and reaction of Jatropha curcas oil and ethanol for synthesis of biodiesel in micromixers

Great advances have been recently made in the area of miniaturization of systems. One of the most important aspects of these microdevices is the mixing of the reacting species, which will determine its conversion to the desired product. These microdevices have been successfully applied in the synthesis of biodiesel, mainly due to increased conversion of reactants in a short residence time. Oils derived from non-edible oil seeds are promising feedstock sources for biodiesel, especially Jatropha species. As a result, this paper numerically studied the mixing and reaction of Jatropha curcas oil and ethanol in micromixers for the production of biodiesel. Three types of micromixers were studied: T-micromixer, Cross-micromixer and Double-T-micromixer. The efficiency of each type was analyzed using a mixing index, which is calculated using the variation of mass fraction, and the conversion of oil. The mixing of the fluid was analyzed with different Reynolds numbers and the conversion of oil was analyzed for different Reynolds numbers and residence times. All showed excellent degree of mixture for low Reynolds numbers, with the Cross-micromixer showing the highest degree of mixing. By increasing the Reynolds number the mixing in the T-micromixer was increased, reduced in the Double-T-micromixer and did not affect the mixture in the Cross-micromixer. It was observed that the conversion obtained in all micromixers is practically constant and is not affected by the variation of Reynolds number studied (10–100). The Cross-micromixer presented the best reaction yield. An increment in residence time increased the conversion of oil. This work numerically demonstrated the possibility of using J. curcas as a feedstock for synthesis of biodiesel in microchannels.

Study of the Use of Cyanobacterial Biomass as Feedstock for Synthesis of Biodiesel Through In Situ Esterification Reaction

Study of the Use of Cyanobacterial Biomass as Feedstock for Synthesis of Biodiesel Through In Situ Esterification Reaction

Optimization of Biodiesel Production from Carthamus Tinctorius L. CV.Thori 78: A Novel Cultivar of Safflower Crop

In the present work, the potential of novel cultivar of safflower seed crop with highest 52% oil contents is evaluated for the first time as a feedstock for biodiesel synthesis. The specific aim of this study was to optimize the transesterification process for maximum biodiesel yield using different parameters and to evaluate its fuel compatibility with mineral diesel. Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) of safflower oil were produced by standard transesterification process using potassium hydroxide (KOH) as catalyst. Optimum biodiesel yield of 98% achieved at 65°C, 5:1 methanol: oil molar ratio, 0.32 g catalyst concentration, and reaction time of 80 min. The kinematic viscosity@ 40°C (cSt), flash point, sulfur contents (wt%), pour point and cloud point of pure safflower oil biodiesel (SOB) were found to be 5.32 mm2/s, 80°C, 0.00041%, –9°C and –11°C, respectively. These together with other fuel parameters were in accordance with ASTM standards. The results obtained indicate that SOB appears to be the potential feedstock for biodiesel production and can be used as an alternate source of fuel in diesel engines.

Optimization of the cultivation conditions for Synechococcus sp. PCC7942 (cyanobacterium) to be used as feedstock for biodiesel production

Cyanobacteria have several advantages as lipid feedstock for biodiesel production compared to microalgae. These benefits include the ability to increase lipid content via genetic manipulation, a high growth rate, nitrogen-fixation and a simpler cell wall, which aids in lipid extraction. Moreover, these bacteria have the capability to convert solar energy into biomass that is two times greater than microalgae and ten times greater than corn and sugar cane. The aim of this study was to optimize the cultivation conditions of Synechococcus sp. PCC7942 and to evaluate the lipid feedstock to generate biodiesel via an enzymatic route. For this purpose, the effect of light intensity (50–150μmolm−2s−1) and the concentration of Na2CO3 (0.5–1.5gL−1) were studied according to a 22 full-factorial design. Under optimized conditions, the biomass productivity (QP) of 124.0±3.2mgL−1day−1, lipid content of 29.0±2.1% and lipid productivity of 35.9±0.5mgL−1day−1 were obtained. The fatty acid profile indicated differences when the medium was enriched with Na2CO3 and cultured in high light intensity, resulting in an increase in unsaturated fatty acids, particularly linoleic acid, which accounts for 40% of the fatty acids in Synechococcus sp. PCC7942. The lipid feedstock was characterized and used as feedstock for biodiesel synthesis using Novozym® 435 as a catalyst and ethanol as an acyl acceptor. The biocatalyst was able to form ethyl esters from all of the fatty acids present in the lipid feedstock, attaining a conversion of 97.1%. Analysis of Synechococcus sp. PCC7942 lipids indicated the potential of this cyanobacterium as a biodiesel feedstock. The primary fatty acids of this cyanobacterium were C16–C18, which is suitable for the production of good-quality biodiesel.

ChemInform Abstract: Advancements in Solid Acid Catalysts for Ecofriendly and Economically Viable Synthesis of Biodiesel

AbstractReview: 83 refs.

Microcystis aeruginosa lipids as feedstock for biodiesel synthesis by enzymatic route

Abstract The cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa strain NPCD-1, isolated from sewage treatment plant and characterized as a non-microcystin producer by mass spectrometry and molecular analysis, was found to be a source of lipid when cultivated in ASM-1 medium at 25 °C under constant white fluorescent illumination (109 μmol photon m −2 s −1 ). In these conditions, biomass productivity of 46.92 ± 3.84 mg L −1 day −1 and lipid content of 28.10 ± 1.47% were obtained. Quantitative analysis of fatty acid methyl esters demonstrated high concentration of saturated fatty acids (50%), palmitic (24.34%) and lauric (13.21%) acids being the major components. The remaining 50% constituting unsaturated fatty acids showed higher concentrations of oleic (26.88%) and linoleic (12.53%) acids. The feasibility to produce biodiesel from this cyanobacterial lipid was demonstrated by running enzymatic transesterification reactions catalyzed by Novozym ® 435 and using palm oil as feedstock control. Batch experiments were carried out using tert -butanol and iso-octane as solvent. Results showed similarity on the main ethyl esters formed for both feedstocks. The highest ethyl ester concentration was related to palmitate and oleate esters followed by laurate and linoleate esters. However, both reaction rates and ester yields were dependent on the solvent tested. Total ethyl ester concentrations varied in the range of 44.24–67.84 wt%, corresponding to ester yields from 80 to 100%. Iso-octane provided better solubility and miscibility, with ester yield of 98.10% obtained at 48 h for reaction using the cyanobacterium lipid, while full conversion was achieved in 12 h for reaction carried out with palm oil. These results demonstrated that cyanobacterial lipids from M. aeruginosa NPCD-1 have interesting properties for biofuel production.

ChemInform Abstract: A Critical Review on Recent Methods Used for Economically Viable and Eco‐Friendly Development of Microalgae as a Potential Feedstock for Synthesis of Biodiesel

AbstractReview: 113 refs.

Synthesis of economically viable biodiesel from waste frying oils (WFO)

AbstractIn present communication, waste frying oil (WFO) has been used as a feedstock for biodiesel synthesis. WFO, procured from a local Indian restaurant possessed an acid value of 0.84 mg KOH/g, which is low enough for single step transesterification reaction. Biodiesel (fatty acid methyl esters) was washed after transesterification reaction and the yield got lowered substantially (from 96% to 86.36%) after water washing owing to loss of esters. 30:100 vol% (methanol to oil), 0.6 wt% NaOCH3, 60°C temperature and 600 rpm agitation in 1 h reaction time was found to be optimum for transesterification reaction. 1H NMR spectrum showed a high conversion (95.19%) of fatty acids in WFO to biodiesel in 2 h reaction time. Almost complete conversion (99.68%) was attained in 2 h reaction time. © 2011 Canadian Society for Chemical Engineering

A critical review on recent methods used for economically viable and eco-friendly development of microalgae as a potential feedstock for synthesis of biodiesel

Microalgae are being considered as a viable feedstock for large-scale production of biodiesel. However, though it may look simpler to obtain lipids from microalgae, the overall process of choosing an algal strain, cultivation, harvesting, dewatering, and extraction of oil is quite complicated and not economically prudent at this time. A thorough understanding of algae and the overall biodiesel production process discussed in this paper is vital so that focused research might lower the costs involved. Various diverse species of microalgae are currently being used as feedstocks for biofuel. Heterotrophic culture may be preferred over photoautotrophic cultivation. For cultivation, specially fabricated photobioreactors (PBRs) have the capability to overcome the constraints and limitations of the open raceway ponds, although the former are cost intensive as compared to the latter. Exergy analysis of algal-biodiesel-carbon dioxide cycle shows the overall process to be renewable and hence should attain global attention.