Feeding Butterflies Research Articles

Phenological variation in biotic interactions shapes population dynamics and distribution in a range-shifting insect herbivore.

Phenological responses to climate change vary across trophic levels. However, how trophic phenological synchrony determines species' distributions through its effects on population dynamics has rarely been addressed. Here, we show that phenological variation underlies population and geographical range dynamics in a range-shifting herbivore, and demonstrate its interplay with changing trophic interactions. Using a novel modelling approach, we identify drivers of variation in phenology and population growth (productivity) for populations of the brown argus butterfly (Aricia agestis) feeding on ancestral and novel host plants in the UK. We demonstrate host plant-specific links between phenology and productivity, highlighting their role in the consumer's range expansion. Critically, later butterfly phenology is associated with higher productivity in the annual second brood, especially on novel annual hosts where later activity improves synchrony with germinating plants. In turn, later phenology and higher second brood productivity are associated with more rapid range expansion, particularly in regions where only the novel hosts occur. Therefore, phenological asynchrony imposes limits on local population growth, influencing consumer resource selection, evolutionary responses and emergent range dynamics. How existing and future trophic phenological synchrony determine population dynamics will be critical for the ecological and evolutionary outcomes of climate change.

Introduction pages, Nova Geodesia 4(3), 2024

Nova Geodesia (https://novageodesia.ro), Issue 3, Volume 4, 2024: The papers published in this issue represent interesting novelties in different topics of geodetic science or related fields. Nova Geodesia publishes significant papers in geodesy and close topics related to cartography, engineering projects and construction, planetology, hydrography, geography, sociodemographic factors, urban administration, planning and environment, landscape, biodiversity, and ecology. Among the exciting articles, we invite readers to find news about: Forest sampling techniques in different types of vegetation applying plot sampling, non-plot sampling, and remote sensing; Soil surface erosion susceptibility analysis using the USLE model. Case study: Bran - Dragoslavele Corridor, Romania; Feeding butterflies with Tridax procumbens (L.), a beneficial plant for maintaining butterfly populations; Impacts of climate-smart soil and water conservation practices and slope gradient on selected soil chemical properties in Eastern Ethiopia: A case study of the Kulkullessa Sub-watershed, Goro Gutu District; Comparative assessment of different rose cultivars under environmental conditions in central Transylvania, Romania; Plants associated with water towers in the Saharan environment: Floristic diversity and therapeutic virtues.

Feeding butterflies with Tridax procumbens (L.), a beneficial plant for maintaining butterfly populations

Butterflies play a crucial role in pollination by feeding on nectar from flowers. In the urbanized area, the interaction of butterflies and flowering plants indicates the state of the environment in this area. Tridax procumbens Linnaeus is an invasive plant, best known as a widespread weed and pest plant. A study was conducted to analyze the association of butterflies with T. procumbens in different time intervals, namely 10 am – 12 pm, 12 – 2 pm, and 2 – 4 pm. A total of 34 species of butterflies belonging to 5 families were reported to visit this plant. Among these three time slots, 12 pm to 2 pm holds significantly the highest number of butterfly visitors (X2=13131.3818, df=33, p=0.00001). The present study demonstrated that the presence of butterfly species and their frequency on T. procumbens shows different visitation patterns for different families in each time interval. The study determined that the butterfly species helps to pollinate this plant, which in turn helps to conserve these butterfly species.

Contrasting responses to microhabitat and temperature determine breeding habitat differentiation between two Viola‐feeding butterflies

Abstract Since widespread monitoring began in 1976 in the UK, habitat‐specialist butterfly populations have declined dramatically. The main driver is habitat degradation, caused primarily by land‐use change, perhaps interacting with changes in vegetation phenology. Here, we focus on two declining species: Boloria selene (Dennis & Schiffermüller) and Boloria euphrosyne L., Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae. We hypothesise that these species differ in their preferred breeding habitat, and this is driven by differences in their temperature preferences, mediated by vegetation cover. We use mark‐release‐recapture techniques and oviposition observations to characterise and compare adult distribution, habitat use and oviposition site preferences of the two species. Egg‐laying females of both species are shown to occur in areas with relatively high abundance of the larval food plants, Viola spp. (violets), principally V. riviniana, and they oviposit where Viola spp. abundance is locally high. However, in contrast to B. selene, ovipositing B. euphrosyne tends to occur in areas with relatively short and sparse cover of vegetation. B. euphrosyne oviposit in sites with a relatively high plant surface temperature irrespective of ambient temperatures, in contrast with B. selene in which the temperature of oviposition sites increases as ambient temperature increases. These differential temperature strategies likely underlie differences in breeding habitat preference. Microclimatic cooling caused by increased vegetation growth in spring may be one reason B. euphrosyne is declining in the UK, while both B. euphrosyne and B. selene may be affected by declining Viola spp. availability. Our data provide further evidence that drivers of butterfly declines can be multi‐factorial, and paradoxically, that thermophilic species do not necessarily benefit from climate warming if responses of other species result in cooling of their habitats.

Microhabitat preferences of butterflies in urban parks: Both vegetation structure and resources are decisive

Urban parks comprise diverse microhabitats, such as vegetation units of lawn and arbour forests, with differing biodiversity potentials. However, the influences of microhabitats on butterfly diversity and the mechanisms involved remain unclear. This study used butterfly survey data from 112 plots in 27 urban parks in the central metropolitan area of Beijing, China, from June to September 2020. Based on the growth form of larval host plants, recorded butterfly species were classified into three functional groups: woody plant-feeding taxa (WF), herb-feeding taxa (HF), and feeding on multiple plant growth forms taxa (MF). We analysed the effects of 11 variables among three facets, namely, vegetation composition, vegetation structure, and human activity, on the butterfly diversity (species richness and abundance) of the whole community, three functional groups using generalised linear mixed models. Twenty-five butterfly species observed mainly feed on herbs rather than on woody plants. Our results demonstrated that vegetation community characteristics explain up to 24% and 43% variation in butterfly species richness and abundance, respectively. Of this, vegetation structure facets crucially affected butterfly species richness, and vegetation composition facets had the most significant influence on the abundance of the whole butterfly community. However, the impact of human activity factors was minimal. Light availability and herb height belonging to vegetation structure factors and nectar plant species richness and nectar abundance which belonged to vegetation composition factors showed the most important and positive effects on butterfly diversity. The positive impact of the above significant factors was found especially on herb-feeding butterfly diversity. In contrast, the diversity of butterflies feeding on woody plants was most positively influenced by herb height. We thus suggest that it is necessary to guarantee the presence of a well-developed herb layer, which provides abundant nectar sources and maintain specific open spaces to ensure light availability. In conclusion, our findings imply that the critical role of the spatial structure of vegetation community is conspicuous in the formation of suitable microhabitats for butterflies, and managers could combine vegetation management practices with the needs of specific functional groups.

Observations on feeding behaviour of adults of the Common Buff butterfly, Baliochila aslanga (Lycaenidae: Poritiinae) at extra-floral nectaries on Adenopodia spicata (Mimosaceae)

Novel feeding behaviour by adult Common Buff butterflies, Baliochila aslanga (Lycaenidae: Poritiinae), is reported on. Nectar assimilation from extra-floral nectaries is known for a number of members of the Poritiinae, and some species also obtain their energy requirements from hemipteran honeydew excrement. We document the first record for the genus Baliochila of an adult butterfly feeding at extra-floral nectaries. Baliochila aslanga was observed imbibing nectar from petiolar glands of Adenopodia spicata (Mimosaceae) in Sodwana Bay National Park in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The searching behaviour to locate the glands and subsequent feeding behaviour, as well as the petiolar glandular morphology, is described and supported by high quality photographs.

Heliconiini butterflies can learn time-dependent reward associations.

For many pollinators, flowers provide predictable temporal schedules of resource availability, meaning an ability to learn time-dependent information could be widely beneficial. However, this ability has only been demonstrated in a handful of species. Observations of Heliconius butterflies suggest that they may have an ability to form time-dependent foraging preferences. Heliconius are unique among butterflies in actively collecting pollen, a dietary behaviour linked to spatio-temporally faithful ‘trap-line' foraging. Time dependency of foraging preferences is hypothesized to allow Heliconius to exploit temporal predictability in alternative pollen resources. Here, we provide the first experimental evidence in support of this hypothesis, demonstrating that Heliconius hecale can learn opposing colour preferences in two time periods. This shift in preference is robust to the order of presentation, suggesting that preference is tied to the time of day and not due to ordinal or interval learning. However, this ability is not limited to Heliconius, as previously hypothesized, but also present in a related genus of non-pollen feeding butterflies. This demonstrates time learning likely pre-dates the origin of pollen feeding and may be prevalent across butterflies with less specialized foraging behaviours.

Fruit feeding butterflies as indicator taxon, pitfalls and concerns demonstrated in the Atlantic Forest

Abstract Aim In the search for the ideal indicator taxon, fruit feeding butterflies have attracted increased focus for use in ecosystem assessments in the tropics. This study aims to shed light on the usability of fruit feeding butterflies in ecosystem assessments by comparing the effect of two different measures of ecosystem degradation on the fruit feeding butterfly community. Location The Interior biogeographical sub region of the Atlantic Forest, southern Brazil. Methods In this study, the impact of tree cover and urban area on the abundance, richness and diversity of fruit feeding butterflies were investigated. Tree cover was measured within 200 and 1000 m of each trap while urban area was just measured within 1000 m. This was accomplished with the use of standardized trapping methods and geospatial tools that allowed for spatial analysis of the area surrounding each trap. In contrast to the common approach, the grouping of sampling units where based on the specific research question addressed, thus enhancing the statistical significance of the results. Results Within 200 m a moderate amount of tree cover (~35–50% tree cover), were found to be positively correlated with all community metrics, while a high amount of tree cover within both 200 and 1000 m (~>50% tree cover) displayed a pronounced negative correlation with all community metrics. Any amount of urban area within 1000 m (~0–30% urban area) showed a pronounced negative correlation with all community metrics. Main conclusions Considering the effect of tree cover, several commonly used community metrics for fruit feeding butterflies were shown to respond contradictorily to what might be expected. However, regarding urban area, the fruit feeding butterfly community were found to respond as expected and was extraordinarily sensitive to disturbances. These results highlight the need to be critical in the choice of community metrics when utilizing fruit feeding butterflies as indicator taxon, while also demonstrating their sensitivity to habitat changes and potential in future habitat assessments. In addition, grouping trap data in accordance to specific research questions was found to yield very robust results, thus allowing for reduced survey costs in future studies.

Anti-aphrodisiac pheromone, a renewable signal in adult butterflies

The male butterfly Pieris napi produces the anti-aphrodisiac pheromone methyl salicylate (MeS) and transfers it to the female during mating. After mating she releases MeS, when courted by conspecific males, which decreases her attractiveness and the duration of male harassment, thus increasing her time available for egg-laying. In previous studies we have shown that males produced MeS from the amino acid L-phenylalanine (L-Phe) acquired during larval stage. In this study we show that adult males of P. napi can utilize L-Phe and aromatic flower volatiles as building blocks for production of anti-aphrodisiac pheromone and transfer it to females during mating. We demonstrate this by feeding butterflies with stable isotope labelled molecules mixed in sugar solutions, and, to mimic the natural conditions, we fed male butterflies with floral nectar of Bunias orientalis plants treated with labelled L-Phe. The volatiles from butterflies and plants were collected and identified by solid phase micro extraction, gas chromatography and mass spectrometry techniques. Since P. napi is polygamous, males would gain from restoring the titre of MeS after mating and the use of aromatic precursors for production of MeS could be considered as an advantageous trait which could enable butterflies to relocate L-Phe for other needs.

A Huge 2015 Butterfly Feeding Aggregation in Northeastern Kansas, U.S.A., with Comparative Notes (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae, Nymphalidae, Pieridae)

In June 2015, a huge, adult butterfly feeding aggregation of thousands of individuals in seven species, dominated by Asterocampa celtis (northern-race Hackberry Emperor), occurred in Douglas and Jefferson Counties, Kansas. This aggregation differed in species composition from smaller aggregations in the same observation area in 1970–1971. A rare A. celtis melanic form was in both the 1970 and 2015 aggregations. Vehicles killed thousands of butterflies in the 2015 aggregation. This study also summarizes data on local population sizes of A. celtis and Asterocampa clyton (Tawny Emperor) in the U.S. and provides new adult food records obtained from eight of the butterfly species in the aggregations.

Sugars in Nectar Sources and their Use by Butterflies (Hesperioidea and Papilionoidea) in the Sierra Nevada, California

Previous laboratory and controlled experiments demonstrated that some species of butterflies may prefer sucrose to other sugars. However, sugar use has not been quantified for an assemblage of butterflies in the field. The abundance of nectar-producing plants, and the volume and concentration of the nectar in those plants, peaks in the initial years following a fire, facilitating investigation of nectar use by butterflies. In 2014 and 2015, we surveyed butterflies and vegetation within the boundary of the Rim Fire event (Stanislaus National Forest, Tuolumne County, California), a major wildfire that occurred in 2013. We quantified the masses of glucose, fructose, and sucrose for all plant species on which we observed butterflies feeding. We tested whether intensity of use of each 20 nectar sources (the number of butterflies observed taking nectar from each source across both years) was associated with the total sugar mass, mass of sucrose, or relative proportion of sucrose. We found no evidence that intensity of butterfly use was associated with sugar mass, mass of sucrose, or the relative proportion of sucrose. Instead, butterflies appeared to use indiscriminately any nectar sources that were available to them. The difference between apparent sugar preferences in the laboratory and in the field may be explained in part by resource availability, and may change as vegetation succession progresses.

Associations between canopy openness, butterfly resources, butterfly richness and abundance along forest trails in planted and natural forests

Increasing the biodiversity in plantations of trees is an important issue because plantations have replaced many natural and semi-natural ecosystems worldwide. Therefore, identifying appropriate management techniques and key factors for enhancing biodiversity in plantations is required. We surveyed butterfly assemblages along forest trails in both plantations and natural forests and measured various environmental variables, including canopy, sub canopy and shrub stem densities, percentage of deciduous trees, flower plant richness, host plant richness, canopy openness and distance to forest edge. We hypothesized that (1) flower and host plant richness increase with an increase in the percentage of deciduous trees and canopy openness; (2) butterfly richness and abundance increase with an increase in forest structural complexity, butterfly resources, canopy openness and distance to forest edge; (3) the responses of plants and butterflies to canopy openness differ in plantations and natural forests; and (4) in plantations, tree-feeding butterflies respond to canopy openness less strongly than herbaceous plant feeding butterflies do because of the low diversity of trees in plantations. Our results generally support these hypotheses. Butterfly resources and butterfly richness and abundance all increase with increasing canopy openness; however, the increases were usually more dramatic in natural forests than in plantations and other factors are less important. In plantations, herbaceous plant feeding butterflies responded to increasing canopy openness more strongly than tree-feeding butterflies. The results of the present study indicate the importance of sunlit forest trails in enhancing butterfly resources, butterfly richness and abundance in plantations. Because at the stand-level management is labour- and cost-intensive, labour- and cost-saving trail management options need to be explored further in terms their effectiveness in increasing biodiversity in plantations.

An observation on the fruit feeding behavior of butterflies in some areas of Bangladesh

Very little information has been found about the behavior of fruit feeding butterflies in Bangladesh. So this was an attempt to know about the fruit feeding behavior of butterflies from different areas of Bangladesh. The study was conducted during June 2014 to September 2015. A total of 11 species and 53 individuals of butterflies of two families feeding on 11 species on the fruits of 11 families were reported. The greatest number of species (five) fed on Averrhoa carambola, Psidium guajava and Mangifera indica followed by Ananas comosus feeding by two species and remaining fruit species feeding by one species of butterfly

Nutrition shapes life-history evolution across species.

Nutrition is a key component of life-history theory, yet we know little about how diet quality shapes life-history evolution across species. Here, we test whether quantitative measures of nutrition are linked to life-history evolution across 96 species of butterflies representing over 50 independent diet shifts. We find that butterflies feeding on high nitrogen host plants as larvae are more fecund, but their eggs are smaller relative to their body size. Nitrogen and sodium content of host plants are also both positively related to eye size. Some of these relationships show pronounced lineage-specific effects. Testis size is not related to nutrition. Additionally, the evolutionary timing of diet shifts is not important, suggesting that nutrition affects life histories regardless of the length of time a species has been adapting to its diet. Our results suggest that, at least for some lineages, species with higher nutrient diets can invest in a range of fitness-related traits like fecundity and eye size while allocating less to each egg as offspring have access to a richer diet. These results have important implications for the evolution of life histories in the face of anthropogenic changes in nutrient availability.

Why stay in a bad relationship? The effect of local host phenology on a generalist butterfly feeding on a low-ranked host.

BackgroundIn plant-feeding insects, the evolutionary retention of polyphagy remains puzzling. A better understanding of the relationship between these organisms and changes in the metabolome of their host plants is likely to suggest functional links between them, and may provide insights into how polyphagy is maintained.ResultsWe investigated the phenological change of Cynoglossum officinale, and how a generalist butterfly species, Vanessa cardui, responded to this change. We used untargeted metabolite profiling to map plant seasonal changes in both primary and secondary metabolites. We compared these data to differences in larval performance on vegetative plants early and late in the season. We also performed two oviposition preference experiments to test females’ ability to choose between plant developmental stages (vegetative and reproductive) early and late in the season. We found clear seasonal changes in plant primary and secondary metabolites that correlated with larval performance. The seasonal change in plant metabolome reflected changes in both nutrition and toxicity and resulted in zero survival in the late period. However, large differences among families in larval ability to feed on C. officinale suggest that there is genetic variation for performance on this host. Moreover, females accepted all plants for oviposition, and were not able to discriminate between plant developmental stages, in spite of the observed overall differences in metabolite profile potentially associated with differences in suitability as larval food.ConclusionsIn V. cardui, migratory behavior, and thus larval feeding times, are not synchronized with plant phenology at the reproductive site. This lack of synchronization, coupled with the observed lack of discriminatory oviposition, obviously has potential fitness costs. However, this “opportunistic” behavior may as well function as a source of potential host plant evolution, promoting for example the acceptance of new plants.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-016-0709-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Nutrient acquisition across a dietary shift: fruit feeding butterflies crave amino acids, nectivores seek salt.

Evolutionary dietary shifts have major ecological consequences. One likely consequence is a change in nutrient limitation-some nutrients become more abundant in the diet, others become more scarce. Individuals' behavior should change accordingly to match this new limitation regime: they should seek out nutrients that are deficient in the new diet. We investigated the relationship between diet and responses to nutrients using adult Costa Rican butterflies with contrasting feeding habits, testing the hypothesis that animals will respond more positively to nutrients that are scarcer in their diets. Via literature searches and our own data, we showed that nitrogen and sodium are both at lower concentration in nectar than in fruit. We therefore assessed butterflies' acceptance of sodium and four nitrogenous compounds that ranged in complexity from inorganic nitrogen (ammonium chloride) to protein (albumin). We captured wild butterflies, offered them aqueous solutions of each substance, and recorded whether they accepted (drank) or rejected each substance. Support for our hypothesis was mixed. Across the sexes, frugivores were four times more likely to accept amino acids (hydrolyzed casein) than nectivores, in opposition to expectation. In males, nectivores accepted sodium almost three times more frequently than frugivores, supporting expectations. Together, these results suggest that in butterflies, becoming frugivorous is associated with an increased receptivity to amino acids and decreased receptivity to sodium. Nectivory and frugivory are widespread feeding strategies in organisms as diverse as insects, birds, and bats; our results suggest that these feeding strategies may put different pressures on how animals fulfill their nutritional requirements.

Evolution of extreme proboscis lengths in Neotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera)

Exaggerated morphologies have evolved in insects as adaptations to nectar feeding by natural selection. For example, the suctorial mouthparts of butterflies enable these insects to gain access to floral nectar concealed inside deep floral tubes. Proboscis length in Lepidoptera is known to scale with body size, but whether extreme absolute proboscis lengths of nectar feeding butterflies result from a proportional or disproportional increase with body size that differs between phylogenetic lineages remains unknown. We surveyed the range of variation that occurs in scaling relationships between proboscis length and body size against a phylogenetic background among Costa Rican Hesperiidae. We obtained a new record holder for the longest proboscis in butterflies and showed that extremely long proboscides evolved at least three times independently within Neotropical Hesperiidae. We conclude that the evolution of extremely long proboscides results from allometric scaling with body size, as demonstrated in hawk moths. We hypothesize that constraints on the evolution of increasingly long butterfly proboscides may come from (1) the underlying scaling relationships, i.e., relative proboscis length, combined with the butterfly's flight style and flower-visiting behaviour and/or (2) developmental constraints during the pupal phase. Lastly, we discuss why butterflies did not evolve similar scaling relationships as hawk moths.

Variation in immune defence in relation to age in the green-veined white butterfly (Pieris napi L.)

We investigate how encapsulation ability varies with adult age in overwintering and in direct-developing animals (development without diapause) of the green-veined white butterfly, Pieris napi. Encapsulation is a resource costly trait coupled to the immune system and encapsulation ability is predicted to decrease with age, since the resource pool of important nutrients generally decreases with age in nectar feeding butterflies. The results support this prediction and both sexes showed an age dependent decrease in their encapsulation ability. There were no significant differences between the sexes but direct-developing males tended to have a steeper decrease than females and we hypothesize that this could be the result of low available resources, since this generation is time and nutrient stressed.

Timing of Male Sex Pheromone Biosynthesis in a Butterfly – Different Dynamics under Direct or Diapause Development

The life history traits and behavior of the butterfly Pieris napi are well-known, as the species is often used as a model organism for evolutionary and ecological studies. The species has two or more generations per year in the major part of its temperate distribution, and as different selection pressures affect the different generations, both behavioral and physiological seasonal polyphenisms have been shown previously. Here, we explored the dynamics of male sex pheromone production. The two generations are shown to have significantly different scent compositions early in life; the direct developers--who have shorter time for pupal development--need the first 24 hr of adult life after eclosion to synthesize the sex pheromone citral (geranial and neral 1:1)--whereas the diapausing individuals who have spent several months in the pupal stage eclose with adult scent composition. Resource allocation and biosynthesis also were studied in greater detail by feeding butterflies (13)C labeled glucose either in the larval or adult stage, and recording incorporation into geranial, neral, and other volatiles produced. Results demonstrate that the pheromone synthesized by newly eclosed adult males is based on materials ingested in the larval stage, and that adult butterflies are able to synthesize the pheromone components geranial and neral and the related alcohols also from adult intake of glucose. In summary, our study shows that time-stress changes the timing in biosynthesis of the complete pheromone between generations, and underpins the importance of understanding resource allocation and the physiological basis of life history traits.

Brassolis isthmia (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae), en pejibaye y en cocotero en Costa Rica.

The life cycle of Brassolis isthmia was studied under field and laboratory conditions in Guapiles, Limon, Costa Rica. This study was carried out between September and November, 1994, during an insect outbreak in a peach palm plantation. During the following years were conducted observations of the butterfly feeding activities on coconut palms, in several localities of the Caribbean slopes too. Several hundred eggs and larvae in the first instar were collected and placed in groups of ten individuals, and fed with pieces of peach palm leaves of 30 x 80 mm. The number of larvae necessary to cause defoliations of 5 and 20% was calculated for each larval developmental stage. Average development took 159 days, distributed as follows: egg 20, larval 114, pupal 20, and adult 5 days. The larvae are gregarious, feed during the night and remain during the day in nests constructed with debris of dry leaves and silk. The consumption rate during the larval stage was of 820.62 cmC; the seventh instar accounts for 72.8% of this.