Federal Correctional System Research Articles

Correctional Transgender Policy in Canada's Federal Prison System.

Since December 2017, Canada's federal correctional system provides prisoners the opportunity to be assigned to living units according to their self-identified gender. Still organized around sex, conceptually and spatially, prison policies and procedures surrounding transgender prisoners require navigation to adhere to the rights of all prisoners. Based on interviews conducted between October 2019 and October 2021 with 74 correctional officers (COs) from the Canadian federal prison system, we discuss how correctional officers view and operationalize Canada's transgender policy to understand its unintended consequences for both prisoners and prison staff. Unintended consequences revolve around the potential risk for prisoner victimization, prisoner pregnancy, lack of adequate housing, strip search complications, officers' fear of being labeled transphobic, and uncertainty and discretion; all having effects on staff wellness. The policy, although well-intended, may potentially compromise prisoner safety, making correctional work even more stressful.

An Economic Analysis of Crime Costs Associated with Psychopathic Personality Disorder and Violence Risk

Given substantial national crime costs and that psychopathic personality disorder (PPD) is a robust predictor of recidivism, a research gap exists concerning the cost of crime attributable to adults with PPD. The current study employed a bottom-up cost of illness approach to estimate the association between PPD and crime costs among Canadian men incarcerated in the federal correctional system ( n = 188). Participants were rated using the Psychopathy Checklist–Revised (PCL-R) and the Historical-Clinical-Risk Management–20 (HCR-20, version 2). Group mean crime costs were highest for participants who scored highly on the PCL-R and were rated high risk on the HCR-20, and higher scores on both measures were associated with prospective costs accrued from violent and nonviolent recidivism. The findings highlight the need to improve the treatment and management of high-risk individuals with prominent psychopathic features, as it has the potential for significant financial savings for criminal justice systems.

Opioid agonist treatment (OAT) experiences and release plans among federally incarcerated individuals with opioid use disorder (OUD) in Ontario, Canada: a mixed-methods study

BackgroundIncarcerated populations experience an elevated prevalence of opioid use disorder (OUD). Federal correctional institutions in Canada have increasingly treated OUD among correctional populations via opioid agonist treatment (OAT) – an evidence based pharmacotherapy that works to reduce drug use and related health harms. However, there is limited evidence regarding incarcerated individuals’ experiences with institutional-based OAT, as well potential OAT-related community release prospects. This information is important for optimal treatment retention and improved health. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted a longitudinal follow-up study examining OAT-related experiences among federally incarcerated individuals before and after community release. This article focuses on the baseline (pre-release) data.MethodsThis mixed-methods study examined OAT-related experiences and release prospects among n = 46 individuals scheduled for community release, recruited from seven federal prisons located in Ontario, Canada. Participants underwent a comprehensive interviewer-administered on-site assessment, including quantitative and qualitative items. Assessment data was furthermore linked to administrative correctional data. Data were analyzed using thematic qualitative and descriptive quantitative approaches.ResultsParticipants had complex histories with opioid use including related negative health outcomes. Experiences with institutional OAT were divergent and provision was not standardized; those with OAT engagement pre-admission did not experience many challenges, whereas those initiating OAT during incarceration experienced barriers such as treatment waitlists and adverse process experiences. Most participants expressed a preference for buprenorphine-naloxone over methadone, but described difficulties accessing it. Participants were keen to transition into community-based treatment, yet envisaged prospective barriers and facilitators concerning successful reintegration and treatment continuity.ConclusionsMajor barriers towards the current administration of OAT in federal correctional systems in Canada exist, including extensive waitlists, non-standardized practices, and challenges accessing preferred OAT formulations; this contributes to sub-optimal treatment. Eliminating waitlists, standardizing OAT provision, providing additional OAT options, and more comprehensive release planning may be essential for treatment retention and positive outcomes.

"It's Pure Chaos Every Day": COVID-19 and the work of Canadian federal institutional parole officers.

As the Canadian federal correctional system grappled with the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, institutional parole officers, who play a central role in prisoners’ case management team, remained essential service providers. Working in uncertain circumstances, these correctional workers navigated new and rapidly changing protocols and risks, while attempting to continue to provide support to those on their caseloads. Based on semi-structured interviews with 96 institutional parole officers, conducted after Canada’s “first wave” of COVID-19 infections, we analyze three ways in which their work was impacted by the pandemic: shifting workloads, routines, and responsibilities; increased workloads due to decarceration (i.e., efforts to reduce the number of incarcerated individuals); and the navigation of new forms of risk and uncertainty. This study advances the understanding of stress and risk in probation and parole work and presents recommendations to ameliorate the occupational stresses experienced by correctional workers during and beyond COVID-19.

Sentencing Federal Drug Offenders

The Drug War ushered in harsh sentencing practices in the United States. The severity in penalties has been particularly salient in the federal criminal justice system. Increased statutory penalties and U.S. Sentencing Commission guidelines led to drug users and traffickers serving longer periods of incarceration. As a result, the federal correctional system is overburdened. A noticeable change in attitude is evident. Congress has offered leniency for certain first-time drug offenders in the form of a statutory safety valve. While a progressive step, the safety valve applies to relatively few individuals. Importantly, federal judges have some discretion to reject what they might consider to be overly lengthy sentencing mandates. This Article provides an empirical study of sentencing statistics for drug offences. The sample derives from the U.S. Sentencing Commission’s fiscal year 2019 dataset of over 20,000 cases sentenced for drug crimes. Results show that judges employed various mechanisms to reduce statutory- and guidelines-based penalties. Strategies by judges include avoiding mandatory minimums (using the safety valve and otherwise), giving greater point reductions than permitted, and rejecting Commission policies. Over 60% of sentences were below the guidelines’ minimum recommendations. The consequences are beneficial in alleviating strain on the federal prison population, but create inconsistency in sentencing practices. A qualitative component supplements the quantitative. Judges, when issuing their statement of reasons for the sentence, may include textual comments. These comments provide valuable contextual information in how judges articulate their concerns with sanctions for drug offenders. Overall results present important policy considerations.

Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Factors: An Exploration of Canadian Federal Correctional Officer Recruits Motivations toward a Correctional Career

ABSTRACT Correctional services are plagued by poor staff retention, shortages, and high rates of turnover, which represent costly challenges for recruitment, training, and administration. Central to addressing challenges of correctional officer retention and staffing shortages is insight into what motivates individuals to pursue a career in correctional services. Although researchers have looked at the motivations of correctional officers entering the Canadian provincial system, researchers have yet to study the motivations of individuals’ entering the field of correctional services in the Canadian federal correctional system. In the current exploratory study, we apply Herzberg’s theory to investigate federal correctional officer recruits’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivations toward becoming correctional officers with the Correctional Service of Canada. By drawing on the voices of recruits (N = 70) interviewed prior to the start of their employment, we thematically examined their rationales for seeking employment as federal correctional officers, their career aspirations, and their expectations about the correctional officer job. Our examination identified three overarching themes: the first tied more purely to extrinsic motivations, the second purely intrinsic, and the third more closely resembled a “drifting” phenomenon. We discuss the results in the context of officer recruitment and retention.

Psychiatry in the federal correctional system in Canada.

The unique challenges of the correctional healthcare environment are well-documented. Access to community-equivalent care, voluntary informed consent of offenders with mental disorder, violence risk, suicide risk, medication misuse, and clinical seclusion, confinement and segregation are just a few of the challenges faced by correctional psychiatric services. This paper shares experiences for dealing with the ongoing challenges for psychiatrists working in the field. It provides an overview of the current state of mental healthcare in the federal correctional system in Canada, the legislative framework and initiatives aimed at addressing the healthcare needs of federal inmates.

Correctional Intake Assessment and Case Planning: Application Development and Validation

The Intake Assessment (IA) process in the Canadian federal correctional system results in an individualized treatment and supervision plan throughout the sentence. Two components, Static and Dynamic Factors Assessment, were examined to determine whether a streamlined version could be tailored for a hand-held mobile application and remain reliable and valid for correctional planning purposes. An Information Management System database was used to identify all first releases from federal custody over a 2-year period who had IA data available ( N = 6,946). Analyses revealed statistically significant relationships and AUCs (area under receiver operating characteristic curves) for both the Static and Dynamic Factors components of IA with respect to reincarceration. Additional analyses revealed that the strongest predictors for returns to federal custody were criminal history as a youth or adult, substance misuse, and unemployment. A combined Static and Dynamic Factors score also yielded a simplified, robust, and incremental predictor of reincarceration for both men and women.

A Culturally Safe and Trauma-Informed Sexually Transmitted Blood Borne Infection (STBBI) Intervention Designed by and for Incarcerated Indigenous Women and Gender-Diverse People

Indigenous women are grossly overrepresented both within the federal correctional system and among Sexually Transmitted Blood Borne Infection (STBBI) diagnoses in Canada. Mainstream approaches continue to fall short in addressing Human Immunodeficiency Virus, Hepatitis C and other STBBIs within this population. In this paper, we argue that, in order to be successful, STBBI programs and services must hinge on meaningful community participation, community ownership and incorporate Indigenous knowledge, perspectives and decolonizing methodologies. Further, they must take a strengths-based approach and focus on healing and resiliency rather than challenges and deficits.

Prostate Cancer in an Incarcerated Population: Patient Characteristics and Treatment

Incarcerated inmates within the Federal Correctional system who are newly diagnosed with cancer are generally transferred to the Cancer Center within the Federal Medical Center Hospital (FMC) in Butner , North Carolina. At the FMC, full time, in house, board certified oncologists offer treatment consistent with the community standard of care. This study looked at the characteristics and oncologic treatment of men transferred to FMC due to the diagnosis of prostate cancer. This was a retrospective chart review. All men with histologically confirmed and newly diagnosed prostate cancer admitted to the FMC during the period of Jan 1 , 2018-Jan 1, 2019 were analyzed. Patients were transferred from within the continental United States and Hawaii. A total of 82 men were transferred: Age range: (36-78 years, mean 59 yrs) with 30% white, 50% African American, and 20% Hispanic. Diagnosis was most commonly due to LUTs syndrome, noted in 85% of men. Two men were diagnosed based on development of symptomatic bone mets. PSA levels for non-metastatic prostate ca at diagnosis ranged from (3-158 , mean 14.1 ng/ml). Gleason score of 9 (n=7), 8 (n=9), 7 (n=37) or 6 (n=27) were noted. A total of 89% of curative patients had high grade/high volume disease and/or PSA greater than 10 ng/ml. Biopsy was by an ultrasound guided trans- rectal approach. Bone scan and pelvic CT were routinely obtained in all patients with Gleason 7 disease or higher. Genomic testing was rarely done. A total of 5 patients requested a watch and wait approach, 3 had surgery, and the remainder underwent external beam radiation therapy. XRT was delivered by an IMRT approach in all cases, with all patients achieving 75.6 Gy in 42 equivalent fractions. Lupron was prescribed in 71 curative cases for 6 or 18 months depending on stage of disease. Federal Inmates diagnosed with prostate cancer appear to have higher Gleason Scores , PSA levels, and volumes of disease then what may be currently expected in the general population. As no prostate screening system is in place ,these more advanced malignancies likely represent the natural history of an unscreened population, which also appears to be the trend in the general population. All incarcerated patients in this study have been treated as per national guidelines. Radiation Therapy is the treatment most commonly taken, generally in combination with androgen blockade due to the higher PSA, grade and advanced disease noted.

P2‐055: Screening for hepatitis C in Ontario, Canada: exploring antibody positivity in the federal and provincial correctional systems

P2‐055: Screening for hepatitis C in Ontario, Canada: exploring antibody positivity in the federal and provincial correctional systems

THU-143 - Screening for hepatitis C in Ontario, Canada: Exploring antibody positivity in the federal and provincial correctional systems

THU-143 - Screening for hepatitis C in Ontario, Canada: Exploring antibody positivity in the federal and provincial correctional systems

National Prevalence of Mental Disorders among Incoming Canadian Male Offenders.

A current estimate of prevalence rates of mental disorder among Canadian federal offenders is required to facilitate treatment delivery and service planning. The study determined prevalence rates of major mental disorders among newly admitted male offenders entering the federal correctional system in Canada. Data were collected at each regional reception site on consecutive admissions for a 6-month period (N = 1110). Lifetime and current prevalence rates were estimated using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM Axis I Disorders (SCID-I) and the SCID Axis II Disorders (SCID-II). Degree of impairment was estimated using the Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) scale. Results were disaggregated by Aboriginal ancestry. The national prevalence rate for any current mental disorder was 73%. The highest rates were for alcohol and substance use disorders; however, over half of participants met the lifetime criteria for a major mental disorder other than alcohol or substance use disorders or antisocial personality disorder. Thirty-eight percent met the criteria for both a current mental disorder and one of the substance use disorders. Fifty-seven percent of offenders with a current Axis I mental disorder were rated as experiencing minimal to moderate functional impairment based on the GAF, indicating that most participants do not require intensive psychiatric services. These results underscore the challenge posed to Canadian federal corrections in providing the necessary mental health services to assist in the management and rehabilitation of a significant percentage of the offender population with mental health needs.

Clemency 2.0

A trope heard throughout criminal justice circles today is that the system is a dystopia. Although most of the discussion and proposed remedies have centered on sentencing or release, this article focuses on clemency, which has become a controversial subject. The last few Presidents have rarely exercised their pardon power or have used it for ignoble reasons. The former withers the clemency power; the latter besmirches it. President Obama sought to kick start the clemency process through the Clemency Project 2014, which sought to provide relief to the 30,000 crack cocaine offenders unable to take advantage of the prospective-only nature Fair Sentencing Act of 2010. That initiative, however, is unlikely to jump-start the clemency power since it is quite limited — to drug offenders unable to benefit from the new crack-to-powder sentencing ratio. But the vast expansion in the size of the federal correctional system, combined with the corresponding increase in the costs of federal corrections, may spur the president to renew his resort to clemency. If so, the question becomes, How?The discussion proceeds as follows: Part I traces the history of the clemency process, focusing on the President’s Article II power to grant an offender mercy. Part II will ask why the clemency power has fallen into desuetude or disdain over the last few decades, and Part III will discuss whether clemency is likely to be reborn in the near future. Part IV will conclude by recommending that the problem lies not in the power it-self, but in the process by which cases are brought to the President for his review and maybe in the people we have elected to make those decisions.

Sex Offenders in the Federal Correctional System

Driven largely by changes in federal legislation, which increased resources for law enforcement and enhanced mandatory minimum sentences, the number of sex offenders handled by the federal criminal justice system has increased over the last 5 years at rates second only to illegal immigration offenses. The heightened attention to sex offending by federal law enforcement coupled with a greater certainty of punishment imposed has resulted in a record number of sex offenders in federal prison and on supervision in the community. Child pornography offenders, for example, share a similar likelihood of receiving a prison sentence (given being charged and convicted) as drug, weapon, and violent offenders. Sex offenders are also serving longer terms in federal prison and on supervision—terms that are expected to increase further in the next decade. This article considers changes in the federal response to sex offenders and growth in prison and supervision populations. Implications for the management of sex offenders in prison—including prison-based residential and nonresidential treatment programs and civil commitment for individuals adjudicated as sexually dangerous—and offenders under supervision in the community are discussed.

Results of the Computerized Mental Health Screening System for Female Offenders

Objective: To estimate the proportion of incoming female offenders in the Canadian federal correctional system requiring mental health services based on results of a Computerized Mental Health Intake Screening System (CoMHISS). Method: Consecutive admissions to the five regional women’s prisons in the Correctional Service of Canada were approached to consent to participate in the CoMHISS. The screening process combines two psychological self-report measures, the Brief Symptom Inventory, and the Depression Hopelessness and Suicide Screening Form. Results were analyzed based on the percentage of women who met established cut-off scores on the measures and further analyzed by Aboriginal ethnicity. Results: Sixty-two percent of the sample reported elevated levels of psychological distress that would warrant further assessment. Although higher for Aboriginal women, the mean scores did not differ significantly from those of non-Aboriginal women. The rate of co-occurring substance abuse among women reporting psychological distress was estimated at 70%. Conclusions: Planning for the delivery of mental health services for federally sentenced women should consider their high rates and variety of psychological problems. Specific correctional treatment planning requires attention to criminogenic needs as well as mental health issues and serious substance abuse problems. Mental health providers for women in prison should be aware of the significant likelihood of co-morbid substance abuse disorders and mental health problems and prepare women to identify follow up services to address these problems on release.

Governing Bodies and Spaces

As it currently stands, mandatory human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) testing of prisoners is performed by nurses in more than 24 states and throughout the federal correctional system. The aim of this article was to bring to the attention of the nursing community the inner workings of mandatory HIV testing and its implications for HIV-positive prisoners. Building on a recent report published by Human Rights Watch, we critically examine the deployment of mandatory HIV testing in state correctional facilities located in Alabama and South Carolina. We, therefore, intend to situate this practice within a bio-political logic and explore its human rights consequence.

Ronin: A Police Officer's Fall into the Federal Correctional System

Ronin: A Police Officer's Fall into the Federal Correctional System

Characteristics of Prison Hospice Programs in the United States

Hospice programs have emerged over the last 40 years as both an effective and humane practice for responding to terminal illnesses in the free society. More recently, hospice has diffused throughout state, federal, and municipal correctional systems. Thus, we sought via a mailed survey of the 69 known prison hospice programs in the United States (response rate of 62%) to determine how prison hospice programs were similar or dissimilar to hospices in the free society. Our findings suggest that prison hospices have a more stringent screening process for volunteers and require more volunteer training prior to interacting with a hospice patient. Prison hospice programs tend to follow both the National Prison Hospice Association and the GRACE Project guidelines.

The Association Between Aging Inmate Housing Management Models and Non-Geriatric Health Services in State Correctional Institutions

One of the current debates in the literature on aging inmates asks, what is the most efficient housing/health care model for this “special needs” population? State and federal correctional systems place elderly inmates either in specialized segregated housing units away from the general inmate population, consolidate elderly inmates in housing units within the prison, or provide a combination of both models. In general, proponents of the segregated housing model argue that aging inmates will receive specialized medical services in geriatric units. However, proponents of consolidated housing model argue that aging inmates will have the benefit of both geriatric and non-geriatric health services. This paper examines the association between the type of housing management model for aging inmates and the availability of non-geriatric physical and mental health services. Data for the analysis come from the 2000 Bureau of Justice Statistics Census of State and Federal Adult Correctional Facilities. The results suggest that institutions offering consolidated geriatric care provide more mental health services and that these effects are independent of the characteristics of prison facility.