Fatimid Research Articles

Kufic Epigraphy between Norman Sicily and Ifriqiya

Abstract Current scholarship on the role of Islamic art in the formation of Norman Sicilian material cultures argues for the importing of artistic traditions from Fatimid Egypt. This Palermo—Cairo axis overshadows the cultural ties that linked Sicily with nearby Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia and Algeria), narrowly separated by the Strait of Sicily. This article explores the epigraphic and visual ties between Sicily and Ifriqiya through extant Kufic epigraphs. It presents for the first time the inscriptions of the Santa Maria di Terreti Church near Reggio Calabria, Italy, and the San Giovanni degli Eremiti and Santa Maria dell’Ammiraglio churches in Palermo, Sicily. Previously dismissed as pseudo-Kufic, these fragments preserve true texts whose ornament and epigraphy correspond to the visual traditions of Zirid Ifriqiya. They offer an alternative perspective to the notion of cultural discontinuity that has guided recent research on the arts of Norman Sicily, instead pointing to medium-specific continuity bridging pre-Norman and Norman rule.

Kajian Dinamika Universitas Al-Azhar dan Reformasi Pendidikan di Mesir serta Pengaruhnya terhadap Dunia Islam

Al-Azhar University is evidence of the oldest Islamic education in the world, which was founded during the Fatimid dynasty in Egypt and functions as a center for Islamic studies and a center for the spread of Isma'ili Shiite teachings. As time went by and changes in Islamic governments, the al-Azhar mosque turned into a madrasa to spread Sunni Islam and has now become a university that has produced many ulama figures who have given birth to new views and ideas for reform, thus influencing the development of education and the Islamic world throughout the world. This research aims to determine the dynamics of universities and educational reform in Egypt which have an impact on Muslims globally, including Indonesia. This research uses library research with references from books, articles and historical analysis of Al-Azhar. The results of this research are knowledge of al-Azhar from the Fatimid dynasty to the present, this motivates Muslims to continue studying and making the mosque prosperous and advancing Islamic education.

Islam Pada Masa Dinasti Fathimiyah

History has recorded that the Fatimid dynasty was an Islamic dynasty that was born in the X century and had very brilliant achievements in Islamic civilization. In fact, this dynasty was able to compete with the two great dynasties at that time, namely the Abbasid dynasty in Baghdad and the Umayyad dynasty in Spain. The glory of Islam during the Fatimid dynasty, was very developed, prosperous in the economic field, educational institutions were built including: the great mosque of al-Azhar which became a university educational institution in Cairo, Dar al-'Ilmi as a center for the study of Islamic sciences, astronomy and medicine . Likewise in the field of architecture, starting from magnificent gates, paintings, carvings, textile and ceramic products. All this shows the existence of the Fatimid dynasty at that time.

Economic Strategies and Prosperity in the Fatimid Dynasty: Contributions to Islamic Economic Thought

Economic Strategies and Prosperity in the Fatimid Dynasty: Contributions to Islamic Economic Thought

The Origin of Esotericism: An Analysis of the Ismaili Esoteric Approach to Qur’anic Interpretation

This study examines the Ismaili method of interpreting Qur’anic verses, focusing on their esoteric hermeneutics. The Quran serves as a fundamental legislative source for various theological factions, each seeking to substantiate their claims by referencing its verses. It also stands as a principal source for muhaddithin, fuqahā (jurisprudents), and others, contributing to the emergence of tafsir, a discipline aimed at elucidating the Quran's meanings and intentions. Consequently, different schools of interpretation, or tafsir, have developed over time. One strand of interpretation adheres to the literal meaning of the text, known as Zāhir, while another explores mystical or esoteric meanings, termed Bātin, occasionally without strong support from Arabic language or Qur’anic and Hadith evidence. Among Shiite sects, the Ismailis distinguish themselves as one of the most enduring, recognizing Ismail bin Ja'far al-Sādiq as their Imam and establishing influential states in Islamic history, such as the Qarmatian state in Bahrain (899–1077) and the Fatimid Caliphate in North Africa (909/1171). To thoroughly investigate this subject, a qualitative research approach is proposed. Given the historical and theological nature of the topic, qualitative methods, such as textual analysis and historical research, facilitate a comprehensive exploration and interpretation of complex phenomena. The findings of this research indicate that Ismailism has heavily relied on the esoteric interpretation of Qur’anic verses since its inception, aligning with Ismaili belief systems, with Qur’anic verses assuming a more significant role than Hadith in their doctrinal framework. The essence of this article lies in delving into the Ismaili approach to esoteric hermeneutics, predominantly drawing from the sect's primary sources.

Michael S. Fulton, Contest for Egypt. The Collapse of the Fatimid Caliphate, the Ebb of Crusader Influence, and the Rise of Saladin

Michael S. Fulton, Contest for Egypt. The Collapse of the Fatimid Caliphate, the Ebb of Crusader Influence, and the Rise of Saladin

غیر مسلموں کی سیاسی اور سماجی خدمات اور ان کے اثرات: عہد فاطمی کا تجزیاتی مطالعہ (909-1171ء)

This article aims to analyse the political and social services of non-Muslims during the Fatimid dynasty (909-1171 A.D.) and their impact. This era has a significant position in Muslim history regarding the development and stability in various fields including knowledge, thought, civilization and industry. The socio-political conditions of the Fatimids were so inclusive and harmonious, that not only there were opportunities of progress for the Muslims but also an encouraging environment was present for the non-Muslims as well. Although, the majority of Egypt's population was Muslim during this period, there were also Christians, Jews and the followers of other religions too. The Fatimid caliphs fully protected the rights of the followers of different religions, paid attention to the construction and repair of their places of worship and gave them freedom of expression. As a result of this practice regarding religious harmony, non-Muslims rendered valuable services in politics, finance, commerce, and academic fields. In this regard, many historians, including Yaqub Bin Yusuf, Isa Bin Nestorius, Abu Saad al-Tustari, Fahad Bin Ibrahim, Mansha Bin Ibrahim al-Qazzaz, Abu Saad and Abu Mansoor have highlighted the contributions of the non-Muslims. However, the roles of such non-Muslim ministers and advisors have been controversial and various serious allegations have been leveled against them, which need to be investigated. In this background, analyzing the political and social services of non-Muslims and their effects in the Fatimid period is an important issue in academic circles. This research article has been presented to fulfil this academic need.

Implications of Islamic Education in The Era of The Kalifah Umar bin Khattab in Building Islamic Civilization

The aim of this research is to determine the implications of Islamic education during the time of Caliph Umar bin Khattab (624-644 AD) in building Islamic civilization. Khalidfa Umar was an intellectual and mujaddid of the classical era. During his time, Islamic government experienced transformation and great leaps through innovation, political reform and ideas in the nature of modern ijtihad; about law and fiqh, social society, religious moderation and others. Another character of Caliph Umar was his hobby of doing blusukan. The characters above show that Umar is a leader who is out of the box. The contribution of education during the time of Umar bin Khattab to the progress of Islamic civilization was at least through several of its policies, including (1) sending teachers or Islamic intellectuals with madrasas or halaqahs to all Islamic territories, from these madrasas producing new intellectuals in large numbers. (2) ordered the Islamic commander who conquered the territory to establish a mosque as an Islamic Center which would be used as a center for Islamic activities, namely as a place of worship and as a place for educational processes. Apart from that, Umar's rational characteristics and tradition of understanding texts using a textual approach have influenced the rationalistic thinking of subsequent Islamic intellectuals - some of whom contributed to the peak progress of Islamic civilization, especially during the Abbasid dynasty in Baghdad and the Fatimid dynasty in Egypt.

“Set the Gaze on Fire”: Gold-Cloth Furnishing and Sacred Propaganda in the Courts of Early Mediaeval Islam

Abstract Three documents from Fatimid Egypt, ʿAbbasid Mesopotamia, and Taifa Toledo – dated between the fourth–sixth/tenth–twelfth centuries – describe the practice of decorating audience halls with gold-threaded furnishing textiles. By identifying fragments believed to be described in these texts, it is proposed that these vibrant interiors were an aesthetic and ceremonial phenomenon of the period. The colour potential of such fabrics, often emphasised in poetry, appears to have encouraged their use, given the symbolic significance associated with the palace and the caliph-imam as vessels and emitters of divine light.

The Sources of the Image in the Poetry of Ibn Hani Al-Andalusi

Objectives: This research aims to study the sources of the artistic image in the poetry of Ibn Hani Al-Andalusi, such as its influence on the Holy Quran, as well as its reliance on human, natural, and cultural source to construct its artistic images.
 Methods: The nature of the study, in its various parts, necessitated following a descriptive analytical approach, enabling the revelation of aesthetic and artistic aspects in the poetry of Ibn Hani Al-Andalusi.
 Results: The researcher discovered that Ibn Hani Al-Andalusi relied on various sources to construct imagery in his poetry. These sources were evident and apparent in his poetic images. He expressed praise for the Fatimid caliphs and their rulers, and drew from elements of nature as sources in his descriptive poetry, alongside human and cultural sources.
 Conclusions: The study concludes that Ibn Hani Al-Andalusi successfully utilized a variety of sources that aligned with his poetic purpose and semantic goals. By diversifying these sources within his poetic images, the poet was able to express his different intentions effectively.

The Deconstructive Hermeneutic of Tasattur in the Epistle of the Creation of Animals of Rasā'l Ikhwān al-Ṣafā'

Academia has some misconceptions about the Epistle of the Creation of Animals of Rasā’il Ikhwān al-Ṣafā’. This article addresses these misconceptions by offering a new hermeneutic to interpret the denouement of its story. This hermeneutic is called tasattur, which incorporated the mechanics of Jacques Derrida’s deconstruction a thousand years before this theory was proposed by him. The article also demonstrates how this interpretive framework of tassatur helps us glean from this epistle an archetypal code for the upcoming Fatimid Empire.

The Rise and Development of Madrasas in Indonesia

Madrasa is an educational institution that has gone through a long process as an educational institution. The emergence of madrasas as higher education institutions after non-formal educational institutions in previous times was due to the expansion of Islamic areas and the development of science which resulted in the consideration of these educational institutions as Islamic educational institutions which were no longer considered capable and adequate for the continuity of Islamic education. especially for those who wish to continue on to higher education. The emergence of the Nizhamiyah madrasah was basically a reaction to the development of Shi’ah understanding at that time, which began in the fourth century. This understanding seems to have developed so rapidly in many Islamic areas that were promoted by the Fatimid dynasty in Egypt. Bearing in mind that it was not enough to fight Shi’ah with force of arms, the government at that time fortified society from Shi’ah influence through education. So since then, madrasas have begun to develop institutionally and autonomously from various regions and develop as a whole as institutions that are sovereign in the power of Islamic political elites as purification of Islamic teachings from an early age and are legally institutionalized.

The Diplomatic Mission of the Crusaders to Egypt in 1167: the Language of “Gestures”

The article analyzes a well-known episode in the history of diplomatic relations between the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and Fatimid Egypt — the conclusion of a treaty on military assistance in 1167. The procedure of concluding the agreement itself vividly revealed the differences in Western and Eastern etiquette of diplomacy and provoked a cultural shock that was overcome with the help of symbolic gestures. A passage translated in the article from the chronicle of William of Tyre allows for a clear understanding of how the language of diplomacy functioned in Latin East in the mid-12th century.

A Tale of Two Port Cities. Al-Mahdiyya, Palermo, and the Timber Trade of the Medieval Mediterranean

Although the timber trade was essential in the tenth century to the global ambitions of the North African Fatimid Caliphate, environmental and political obstacles compelled the Fatimids to obtain most of their precious cargo from Sicily. This article discusses timber’s essential importance to the Fatimids and how they procured this commodity, shedding light on the historical developments that occurred at the ports of al-Mahdiyya and Palermo under the Fatimids as a result of continuous trade between Ifrīqiya and Sicily. Applying a multidisciplinary analysis of Fatimid chancellery documents, historical texts, material culture, environmental history, and history of art, this article considers the role of the timber trade in the urban development of these two port cities. Specifically, it looks closely at the direct role of Ustādh Jūdhar, a tenth-century Fatimid official, in the procurement of timber. The result is a nuanced picture of the complexities of trade in the medieval Islamic Mediterranean world.

Из поэтического наследия Сулеймана, епископа Газского (X–XI вв.)

The publication presents a commented interlinear and literary translation of two qasidas (poems) from the Divan (collection) of the first known Arab Christian poet – Sulayman al-Ghazzi, bishop of Gaza in Palestine (Xth-XIth cent.). His poetic work is the earliest attempt at using the metrical and stylistic tools of classical Arabic poetry for purely Christian subjects. The Divan also contains multiple autobiographical data and important historical evidence of Christian persecution under the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim, including the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. Despite their unique significance, very few of Sulayman’s poems have been translated into a modern language. The two selected qasidas belong to the opposite traditional genres of Arabic poetry – reproach and praise. In the first one the Jews who rejected Christ are targeted; the other one is focused on righteous Christians and their liturgy. In addition, the first qasida is rich in biblical allusions and quotations, loosely reworked by the author in a poetic vein, and the second one gives a detailed description of the divine service and is therefore a valuable evidence of the liturgical life of Palestinian Christians in Sulayman’s era.

The Implementation of Wazır al-Tafwid in the Islamıc World And its Influence on The Foundation of the Ayyubids

XII. yüzyılın ortalarında Mısır’ın Haçlı ve Bizans orduları tarafından işgali tehlikesi ortaya çıkınca Fâtımî halifesi Âdıd-lidînillâh ve veziri Şâver b. Mücîr tarafından Atabeg Nûreddin Zengî’den askeri yardım istenmiştir. Nûreddin Zengî bu duruma kayıtsız kalmayarak en seçkin birliklerini başında Şirkûh gibi önemli bir kumandan ile birlikte destek için göndermiştir. Şirkûh ve beraberindekiler Mısır’a 3 kere sefer düzenlemişler ve son seferde Haçlılar’ı bertaraf ederek Mısır’a yerleşmişlerdir. Bununla birlikte Âdıd-lidînillâh Şirkûh’u Fâtımî veziri olarak tayin etmiştir. Şirkûh diğer Fâtımî vezirleri gibi çok önemli yetkilere haiz olarak devleti iki aya yakın yönetmiştir. Onun ani ölümüyle birlikte Zengî ümerası arasında vezirlik mansıbı için tartışmalar çıksa da Selâhaddin, Ziyâeddin el-Hakkârî’nin desteğiyle vezir olmuştur. Selâhaddin’in 1169 yılında vezir olması daha önceki Fâtımî vezirleri örneğinde olduğu gibi onun tefvîz veziri olmasını sağlamış ve hükmen sultan olmuştur. Selâhaddin Abbasi halifeliği ve Zengîler’den gelen baskılar neticesinde Fâtımî hilafetine son vermiştir. Abbasi halifesi adına hutbe okutmuş, Fâtımî isyanlarını bastırmış ve Haçlılar ile Bizans ordularını yenerek kendisinin ne kadar güçlü olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Selâhaddin her ne kadar tüm bunları Nûreddin Zengî sayesinde yapsa da ailesinin de desteğiyle birlikte Mısır’da yarı bağımsız bir devlet kurmak istemiştir. Selâhaddin’in bu girişimi Fâtımî devletinde görev alan vezirlerin sınırsız yetkilere hâiz olarak devleti yönetmeleri ile alakalı olup Nûreddin Zengî’nin bir memuru olmak yerine müttefik bir sultan olmanın yollarını aramıştır. Her ne kadar Nûreddin Zengî bu duruma karşı çıkıp Selâhaddin’i kendisinin sipehsaları ve nâibi olarak görse de Selâhaddin onunla bir çatışmaya girmeden devletini kurmayı başarmıştır. Selâhaddin Eyyûbî, Nûreddin Zengî’nin vefatından sonra Abbâsi halifesinden onay alıp Mısır, Suriye ve el-Cezîre’de saltanatını ilan ederek İslâm dünyasının bu iki önemli bölgesini birleştirmiştir. Makalede tefvîz vezirliği kurumunun İslâm tarihindeki serüveni anlatıldıktan sonra Selâhaddin’in Mısır’da vezir tayin edilmesiyle başlayan Eyyûbiler’in devletleşme sürecine tefvîz vezirliği makamının ne ölçüde etkisinin bulunduğu ele alınmıştır. Makalede ayrıca Nûreddin ile Selâhaddin arasında tarihçiler arasında tam olarak anla-şılmayan ve tanımlanamayan hakimiyet meselesi üzerine çağdaş tarihçilerin yapmış oldukları tartışmalar tahlil edilerek bir kanaate ulaşmak hedeflenmiştir. Yöntem olarak tefvîz vezirliği ile ilgili siyasetname müelliflerinin tespit ettiği hususlar çerçevesinde konu kronolojik olarak anlatılmış ve tespitlerde bulunulmuştur.

Social Acceptance of the Fatimid Caliphs in the Light of Social Vitality of Popular Rituals

Social Acceptance of the Fatimid Caliphs in the Light of Social Vitality of Popular Rituals

The Making and Breaking of Kinetic Empire: Mobility, Communication and Political Change in the Eastern Mediterranean, c. 900–1100 CE

AbstractThis paper applies the concept of ‘kinetic empire’ to the eastern Mediterranean world in the tenth and eleventh centuries. The term ‘kinetic empire’ is borrowed from Hämäläinen's analysis of the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century north American Comanche Empire. It refers to the way in which trans- and supra-regional power could be created, expressed and enforced through mobile means. The article focuses primarily on the role of mobility in the expansion of the Byzantine Empire between c. 900 and 1050, but also makes comparison with the contemporaneous Fatimid caliphate and other regional polities which we might usually regard as sedentary states. Recovering the role of the kinetic not only extends our understanding of the modalities of power in this crucial region of the medieval world, it also allows us to question the nature and degree of transformation wrought by mobile newcomers, such as Normans, crusaders and Turks in the later decades of the eleventh century. In this sense of developing and exploring concepts useful for the study of the transregional in premodernity and questioning standard periodisations, this article is also a practical exercise in medieval global history.

Ibn Qadous's prose and poetry, an artistic study

Ibn Qadous is a writer of the writers of Fatimid Caliphate. He was known his literary faculties on both prose and poetry, we presented to him in this research after we went to a definition of his biography, origin, position and literary style. We dealt with his written and poetic literature in a rhetorical and technical study by determining creative arts such as assonance, alliteration, counterpoint, and repetition. In poetry, we have studied some of his poems and identified their purposes and rhetorical features, as well as his technical and linguistic use, such as using nouns, verbs, (letters), and their concordances that give the musical side a nice rhythm and tone, especially his employment of voiceless letters for example "s" letter, and using it for the Quranic intertextuality in some poems of his works.

FATIMID-BYZANTINE POLITICAL RELATIONS (971-1069)

Bu araştırmada amaç, Bizans İmparatorluğu ile Fâtımî devleti arasındaki siyasi ilişkilere ışık tutmaktır. Fâtımî halifesi Muiz-Lidînillâh döneminde nüfuzlarını genişleterek Mısır’ı yönetimleri altına geçiren Fâtımîler, Bizanslıların Suriye’nin kuzeyinde ele geçirdiği şehirleri geri almaya çalıştılar. Bu siyasetin uygulanması için Fâtımî komutanlarından Cafer b. Felah görevlendirildi. Aralarında Antakya’nın da bulunduğu söz konusu şehirleri Bizanslıların elinden geri almak için büyük bir ordu hazırlayan Cafer b. Felah, çeşitli girişimlerde bulunduysa da amacına ulaşmayı başaramadı. Böylece Fâtımî devleti ile Bizans İmparatorluğu arasındaki anlaşmazlıklar ve askeri hamleler 988 yılına kadar süregeldi. 988’de Mısır’a gönderilen imparator II. Basileios’un elçileri halife Fâtımî Azîz-Billâh’a çeşitli armağanlar sunarak iki devlet arasında barış anlaşması yapma talebini iletti. İki devlet arasında ateşkes anlaşması yapıldıysa da anlaşma uzun ömürlü olmadı ve çok geçmeden bozuldu. Bu arada Bizanslılar, her fırsatta Fâtımîleri hedef alırken iki taraf arasındaki silahlı çarpışmalar halife Müstansır-Billâh döneminin sonlarına kadar sürdü. Bu dönemde Suriye’deki birçok bölge ve şehir, Fâtımîlerin elinden çıkarak Fâtımîlerin Suriye’deki nüfuzu gerilemiş oldu.