Father-infant Relationship Research Articles

Postpartum Blues in Fathers: Prevalence, Associated Factors, and Impact on Father-to-Infant Bond.

In this study we explored, in men, one of the most common postpartum syndromes in women: the postpartum blues. The aims of the study were (a) to evaluate the prevalence of postpartum blues in fathers, (b) to explore the sociodemographic and perinatal factors that may be associated with its intensity, and (c) to investigate the relationship between the intensity of blues symptoms and the quality of father-to-infant bonding. Three hundred and three French-speaking fathers living in France completed a sociodemographic and obstetrical questionnaire, the Maternity Blues Questionnaire, and the Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire. The fathers were recruited from two maternity hospitals and a Child and Maternal Health Centre within 10 days of their infant's birth, or from online forums devoted to parenting. At least 17.5% of fathers experienced postpartum blues. A high level of education was associated with a higher level of postpartum blues symptoms. Dissatisfaction with the maternity care and significant father involvement during pregnancy and delivery predicted more severe postpartum blues symptoms. Symptoms of postpartum blues were positively correlated with impairment in the father-to-infant bond. This study lends support to the existence of postpartum blues among fathers and highlights its possible consequences on early father-infant relationships.

First-time Motherhood Experiences During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Qualitative Study

It has been known that the factors such as social isolation, restrictions, health concerns, and weakened support networks experienced during the pandemic period has positive and negative effects on new mothers both in the prenatal and postnatal period. Therefore, it is important to comprehensively examine the experiences of mothers in terms of caregiving responsibilities, relationships, and coping with new motherhood during the COVID-19 period. Accordingly, in this study, it was aimed to have information about the experiences of new mothers during the COVID-19 period. In this study, information was obtained through semi-structured interviews with 16 female participants who became mothers for the first time during the pandemic period. The ages of the participants ranged from 26 to 38 (M = 32, SD = 3.48). A total of 14 questions were developed by the researchers in order to have in-depth information about women’s experiences of becoming a mother during the COVID-19 period, the effects of the pandemic period on their family life, coping strategies in the COVID-19 pandemic, and whether they received social support during the baby care process. The interviews were individually conducted on online platforms. The obtained data were evaluated by content analysis. Interrater reliability was found to vary between .81 and .91. The results indicated that being a first-time mother and being a working mother during the COVID-19 period is disadvantageous. It was observed that mothers frequently used active coping strategies and most frequently received social support from family of origin and spouse. Moreover, most of the participants stated that father-infant relationships were positively affected by the pandemic process. Mothers reported financial loss, emotional distress, and difficulties in accessing social support during the pandemic, highlighting the challenges of first-time motherhood during this period

Fathers' Relational Experiences of Stillbirth: Pre-natal Attachment, Loss and Continuing Bonds Through Use of Objects.

This study aimed to investigate fathers' lived experiences of stillbirth through the lens of continuing bonds and use of objects. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with six fathers who had experienced stillbirth from 20 weeks gestation. Interpretative phenomenological analysis revealed five themes: loss and continued bonds in a mother-mediated dynamic, objects as manifestations of relational and meaningful memories, exerting existence and continued connection to others, continued bond through physical presence and evolving expressions of love and fatherhood. Findings offer a novel understanding of the relationship between objects and continued bonds, where objects are seen to facilitate this bond through varying means, including physical manifestation of the deceased and representation of the father-infant relationship. The study places importance on fathers' involvement in creating objects permeated with meaning and memories, and of validating fathers' experiences of loss rather than considering these men merely as partners of a mother who lost their own baby.

Emotional Closeness Among NICU Fathers: A Qualitative Descriptive Study.

The unique perspective of fathers with an infant in the neonatal unit on the development of emotional closeness toward their infant is not well understood. The purpose of this study is to explore experiences and instances of emotional closeness from the perspective of fathers as well as factors influencing emotional closeness during an infant's hospitalization in the neonatal unit. This qualitative descriptive study employed one-on-one interviews with fathers recruited in a level 3 neonatal unit. The interview data were analyzed with thematic analysis, and emerging themes and subthemes were organized according to dimensional analysis. Eight fathers agreed to take part in this study. According to the participants, emotional closeness was a complex process composed of multiple dimensions. More specifically, emotional closeness was a difficult-to-describe, mixed, and growing feeling influenced by multiple factors such as the environment, co-parenting, and the father-infant relationship. It occurred in the contexts of presence and separation in the neonatal unit and was part of the development of the father-infant relationship. The results presented in this article are important for neonatal intensive care unit nurses who support fathers in the development of their fathering role. By knowing more about the process and dimensions of emotional closeness, nurses can direct their interventions with fathers to enhance emotional closeness and better understand their experience. No previous study has addressed emotional closeness as a complex process with multiple components like the current study. These findings contribute to our understanding of the process of emotional closeness for fathers.

The Impact of Parental Relationship Satisfaction on Infant Development: Results From the Population-Based Cohort Study DREAM.

Extensive literature has shown that interparental conflicts and violence have detrimental effects on children's adjustment in childhood and adolescence. It is not equally well-understood how parental relationship satisfaction impacts infant communicational and personal-social development during the first year of life. This longitudinal study examines (a) the impact of maternal and paternal relationship satisfaction on infant development, (b) whether this prospective association is mediated by parent-infant relationship, and (c) a potential moderating effect of infant gender. Data were derived from the population-based cohort study “Dresden Study on Parenting, Work, and Mental Health” (DREAM) including 1,012 mothers and 676 fathers. Relationship satisfaction and parent-infant relationship were assessed eight weeks postpartum, infant communicational and personal-social development were measured 14 months postpartum. Multiple linear regression, mediation, and moderation analyses were conducted for mothers and fathers separately. It was shown that paternal relationship satisfaction is a significant predictor of infant personal-social development. This prospective association was partially mediated by father-infant relationship. When postnatal depression was included in the analysis, however, father-infant relationship was not a significant mediator. The association in fathers is neither reduced nor increased as a function of infant gender. No similar effects were found in the mothers' sample. Parental relationship satisfaction did not significantly predict infant communicational development in either mothers or fathers. The study findings highlight the importance of paternal relationship satisfaction, father-infant relationship, and postnatal depression for infant personal-social development.

Relationships between paternal attitudes, paternal involvement, and infant-feeding outcomes: Mixed-methods findings from a global on-line survey of English-speaking fathers.

The breastfeeding intention–behaviour gap remains wide in developed countries. Current studies have focused on maternal attitudes and behaviours concerning infant feeding in order to explore barriers to breastfeeding continuation. There has been limited consideration of the impact of paternal attitudes and behaviours, despite contemporary parenthood evolving and evidence indicating that there are greater levels of paternal involvement in routine childcare tasks. This mixed‐methods study used a triangulation design to examine the associations between paternal attitudes towards parenthood and infant‐feeding methods, levels of paternal involvement, infant‐feeding outcomes, and father–infant relationships. Fathers of infants <52 weeks completed an online survey providing quantitative data (N = 212) and qualitative data (N = 208). For the quantitative data, fathers completed validated measures about their attitude towards parenthood and infant feeding, levels of paternal involvement, and infant‐feeding history. For the qualitative data, questions explored influences on paternal attitudes towards infant feeding and the father–infant relationship. After controlling for covariates, regression analyses found egalitarian attitudes towards parenthood were positively associated with both attitudes towards breastfeeding and levels of paternal involvement. Positive paternal attitudes towards breastfeeding were significantly associated with increased likelihood of breastfeeding. A thematic framework analysis indicated fathers' attitudes towards infant feeding were largely influenced by their families and partners or healthcare professionals. Polarised views were expressed about the impact infant‐feeding methods had on the father–infant relationship, although fathers were united in their desire to bond with their infant. Addressing paternal attitudes and the importance of father–infant involvement in domains other than feeding maybe beneficial in supporting breastfeeding and the father–infant relationship.

Depressive Symptoms, Dyadic Coping, and Attachment to the Fetus in Expectant Fathers: A Moderated-Mediation Analysis

Father-fetal attachment is an important contributor to future father-infant relationship and to child outcomes. The aim of this study was to examine factors potentially associated with the levels of attachment to the fetus. Specifically, we explored the association between fathers’ depressive symptoms and father-fetal attachment and examined the potential mediating role of dyadic coping in this association. Moreover, the moderated role of parity (be or not a first-time father) was tested. Expectant fathers (N = 302; M age = 33.38; SD = 5.82) completed the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, the Dyadic Coping Inventory and the Paternal Antenatal Attachment Scale. Results of the moderated-mediation model indicated that more depressive symptoms were associated directly and indirectly, through lack of positive dyadic coping (but not through negative dyadic coping), to the father-fetal attachment. Specifically, while for non-first-time fathers their depressive symptoms were associated with lower levels of attachment to the fetus only when they experienced lower levels of positive dyadic coping, for first-time fathers depressive symptoms were associated with lower levels of attachment to the fetus regardless of their levels of positive dyadic coping. It seems that, for fathers both intrapersonal and interpersonal factors are associated with the levels of attachment to the fetus. These findings can contribute to inform psychosocial interventions and research about men’s needs during pregnancy.

Male callers to an Australian perinatal depression and anxiety help line-Understanding issues and concerns.

There is increasing recognition of the issues facing men in the perinatal period. Vulnerability factors and issues in the partner relationship contribute to mental health risk and can impact the quality of the father-infant relationship. Yet, there is limited understanding of fathers' help-seeking when they or their partner are experiencing mental health issues in the context of caring for a new baby. The present study examines fathers' contacts with the Perinatal Anxiety and Depression Australia (PANDA) National Helpline. The study reviewed contacts from fathers and their identified needs for assistance, relationship issues, and support needs; 70% of male callers (N = 129) reported concerns about the mother's mental health, and 57% were concerned about relationship breakdown. Significant numbers of men raised issues about their own mental health (43%) and many were concerned about the impact of maternal mental state on the relationship with the infant. When compared to community data, there were elevated rates of concerns about depression and anxiety. Men also described difficulties with the fathering role and with regulating their own feelings of guilt and frustration. These findings highlight the needs of men for support when a mother experiences perinatal problems and also the risk for distress in fathers.

Process evaluation of text-based support for fathers during the transition to fatherhood (SMS4dads): mechanisms of impact

BackgroundThere is growing evidence for the value of technology-based programs to support fathers to make positive transitions across the perinatal period. However, past research has focused on program outcomes with little attention to the mechanisms of impact. Knowledge of why a program works increases potential for replication across contexts.MethodsParticipants were 40 Australian fathers enrolled in the SMS4dads text-based perinatal support program (Mean age 35.11 (5.87). From a starting point between 16 weeks gestation and 12 weeks postpartum, they were sent a maximum of 184 text messages. An inductive approach was used to analyse post-program semi-structured interviews. The aim was to identify mechanisms of impact aligned to previously identified program outcomes, which were that SMS4dads: 1) is helpful/useful; 2) lessens a sense of isolation; 3) promotes the father-infant relationship; and 4) supports the father-partner relationship.ResultsWe identified two types of mechanisms: four were structural within the program messages and five were psychological within the participant. The structural mechanisms included: syncing information to needs; normalisation; prompts to interact; and, the provision of a safety net. The psychological mechanisms were: increase in knowledge; feelings of confidence; ability to cope; role orientation; and, the feeling of being connected. These mechanisms interacted with each other to produce the pre-identified program outcomes.ConclusionsIf the current findings are generalisable then, future mobile health program design and evaluation would benefit from explicit consideration to how both program components and individual cognitive and behavioural processes combine to elicit targeted outcomes.

The Father-infant relationship beyond caregiving sensitivity

ABSTRACTParental sensitive behavior is seen as one of the main determinants of attachment security. However, studies also suggest that other behaviors may be stronger predictors of the parent-child relationship (Lucassen et al., 2011). The lack of a significant association between sensitive behavior and the quality of the attachment relationship between father and child in Olsavsky et.al’s study indeed seems to reflect the notion that other interactive behaviors may be specific in father-child relationships (i.e., destabilizing behavior followed by sensitivity). Since the strength of the association between the quality of parental interactive behavior (e.g., sensitive, responsive behavior) and child attachment security is moderate (Fearon & Belsky, 2016), and weaker for fathers (Lucassen et al., 2011) there is a need to examine other factors beyond caregiving sensitivity in attachment research. For example, the important role of reparation of mismatching to matching states and fathers’ own attachment history as related to frightening behavior and mentalization are factors that need to be taken into account. It is essential to apply a broader view of father’s parenting behaviors in different contexts (distress, non-distress, or risky contexts) and a broader view of child attachment behaviors in relationship with the father.

Experiences, needs, and perceptions of paternal involvement during the first year after their infants' birth: A meta-synthesis.

ObjectivesFatherhood has evolved in recent decades from ‘a moral teacher’ to ‘an involved father’. However, fatherhood experiences have not been examined in detail. This meta-synthesis aimed to examine fathers’ experiences, needs, and perceptions of their involvement with their infants during the first 12 months of birth.MethodSix electronic databases were systematically searched: PubMed, CINAHL, Embase, Scopus, PsycINFO, ProQuest (grey literature). The search resulted in 13 studies that met the inclusion criteria. Quality appraisal was conducted using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme Checklist. All 13 studies met the appraisal criteria and were included in the meta-synthesis. The findings of the 13 studies were synthesized using the steps of Sandelowski and Barroso in conducting meta-synthesis.ResultsThe 13 included studies comprised studies conducted in the West, Africa, and Asia. Fatherhood experiences differed according to different sociocultural contexts. Three themes were identified: (1) trajectory of the father-infant relationship, (2) reinforcements and hindrances to involvement, and (3) change from self-oriented to family-oriented behavior. Changes in a father’s relationship with his infant were influenced by relationships with his spouse and family members after the birth of the infant. Reinforcements, hindrances, and needs to fathers’ involvement were identified. Fathering responsibility and parenting satisfaction that developed overtime influenced a father’s behavior, changing from self-oriented to family-oriented.SignificanceThis is the first meta-synthesis that examined fathers’ experiences, needs, and perceptions of their involvement with their infants during the first 12 months of birth. Multiple factors were found to influence the socially-defined fathering ideology. Cultural practices of fatherhood and fathers’ own perceptions shaped their actual fathering behaviors. The findings of this study may guide healthcare professionals as frontline personnel to understand fathers’ needs and experiences in order to promote fathers’ involvement in the early days after their infants’ birth.

Associations of paternal postpartum depressive symptoms and infant development in a Chinese longitudinal study

Although fathers actively provide infant care and support to their partners in modern societies, data on fathers’ difficulties and mental health problems is still limited. This study examined paternal postpartum depression and its adverse impact on infants, and the possible mediating role of father-infant attachment in the link between fathers’ depressive symptoms and infants’ outcomes. Pregnant women and their partners were recruited from the antenatal clinics of two public hospitals in Hong Kong. Information about paternal and maternal depression, paternal-infant attachment, and infant development were collected at antenatal period, 6 weeks and 6 months postpartum. Linear regression was employed to examine risk factors for paternal depression symptoms, and mediation analysis was conducted to examine the mediating mechanisms. 121 couples joined the longitudinal study and completed all the assessments. Paternal postpartum depression symptoms were associated with fathers’ prenatal depression symptoms, and mothers’ postpartum depression symptoms. Fathers with postpartum depression symptoms experienced reduced paternal-infant attachment, which also acted as mediators between postpartum depression in fathers and adverse infants’ social development. Effective assessment and interventions targeted at preventing or identifying and reducing paternal postpartum depression and improving father-infant relationship would help to lower the risk of infant disorders and poor development. Strategies improving the fathers’ mental health during antenatal period and their partner’s psychosocial well-being may also reduce paternal postpartum depression.

Families Created by Egg Donation: Parent-Child Relationship Quality in Infancy.

Increasing numbers of children are being born through egg donation and thus do not share a genetic relationship with their mother. Parent–infant relationship quality was examined in 85 egg donation families and a comparison group of 65 in vitro fertilization families (infant M = 11 months). Standardized interview and observational measures were used to assess mother–infant and father–infant relationship quality at the representational and behavioral levels. Few differences were found between family types in parents’ representations of the parent–infant relationship. Differences were found between family types in the observational assessment of mother–infant relationship quality, indicating less optimal interactions in egg donation families. Findings suggest that egg donation families function well in infancy overall, but there may be subtle yet meaningful differences in mother–infant interaction quality.

Fathers' experiences with their preterm babies admitted to neonatal intensive care unit: A multi-method study.

The aim of this study was to investigate fathers' emotional experiences of their infant's preterm birth and subsequent stay in neonatal intensive care unit. When a baby is born preterm, there is also the premature interruption of the process of preparation for fatherhood. As a result, the impact on fathers of the preterm birth can bring negative consequences for the development of father-infant relationship. A multi-method approach was used which included ethnographic observation, semi-structured interviews with fathers, a self-report questionnaire and clinical information between September 2015-March 2017. Data were analysed using a mixed-method: a thematic analysis of data from the interviews and quantitative analyses to detect possible clusters of fathers' emotional experiences and associations between clusters and fathers' and/or infants' characteristics. Two clusters were identified. The "fathers-of-preterm-infants" touched their baby as soon as they were given the opportunity and without fear that they would harm their infant. They were struck by their baby's physical appearance. In contrast, the "preterm fathers" preferred not to touch their baby when first given the chance, for fear of breaking/damaging/infecting her/him. They were struck both by the baby's physical appearance and by the technology/equipment around her/him and were afraid that their infant would die. All the "fathers-of-preterm-infants", but only just over half of the "preterm fathers", were actively engaged in their infant's care. Clusters were associated with the infant's gestational age. Fathers of preterm infants should receive personalized support specifically addressed to them and based on the infant's gestational age.

Increase in Oxytocin From Skin-to-Skin Contact Enhances Development of Parent-Infant Relationship.

To examine changes that occur in infant and parent salivary oxytocin (OT) and salivary cortisol (SC) levels during skin-to-skin contact (SSC) and whether SSC alleviates parental stress and anxiety while also supporting mother-father-infant relationships. This randomized crossover study was conducted in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) with a sample of 28 stable preterm infants and their parents. Saliva samples were collected from infants, mothers, and fathers on Days 1 and 2 (1/parent) for OT and cortisol measurement pre-SSC, during a 60-min SSC session, and a 45-min post-SSC. Parental anxiety was measured at the same time points. Parent-infant interaction was examined prior to discharge on Day 3 via video for synchrony and responsiveness using Dyadic Mutuality Coding. Salivary OT levels increased significantly during SSC for mothers ( p < .001), fathers ( p < .002), and infants ( p < .002). Infant SC levels decreased significantly ( p < .001) during SSC as compared to before and after SSC. Parent anxiety scores were significantly related to parent OT and SC levels. Parents with higher OT levels exhibited more synchrony and responsiveness ( p < .001) in their infant interactions. This study addresses a gap in understanding the mechanisms linking parent-infant contact to biobehavioral responses. SSC activated OT release and decreased infant SC levels. Facilitation of SSC may be an effective intervention to reduce parent and infant stress in the NICU. Findings advance the exploration of OT as a potential moderator for improving responsiveness and synchrony in parent-infant interactions.

Influence of father-infant relationship on infant development: A father-involvement intervention in Vietnam.

We examined the extent to which fathers can be taught and encouraged to develop positive relationships with their children, especially in infancy, and the effects of this fathering intervention on infant development. A multifaceted relationally focused intervention was used to assist fathers in Vietnam to engage in responsive direct and indirect involvement with their infants and work together with the mother as part of a parenting team. Fathers and mothers from 13 communes in a rural and semiurban district were recruited to the intervention group. Intervention fathers received group and individual counseling before and after birth, an interactive print resource, community messages about fathering, and the opportunity to participate in a Fathers Club. Couples from 12 comparable communes in a noncontiguous district were recruited to the control group. Fathers and mothers completed questionnaires at the prebirth recruitment and at 1-, 4-, and 9-months postbirth. Intervention fathers demonstrated greater increase in knowledge and attitudes regarding father-infant relationships. Both fathers and mothers reported that fathers engaged in more affection, care-taking, and play in the early months of their infants' lives and fathers felt more attached to their infants right from birth. A developmental assessment at 9 months showed that intervention infants demonstrated higher levels of motor, language, and personal/social development. This study demonstrated that fathers can be taught to interact more sensitively, responsively, and effectively with their newborn infants. Their increased interaction and emotional attachment appears to lay the foundation for enhanced infant development. (PsycINFO Database Record

PATERNAL AND MATERNAL REFLECTIVE FUNCTIONING IN THE WESTERN AUSTRALIAN PEEL CHILD HEALTH STUDY.

While past research on the care of infants has been mostly with mothers, in recent times there has been a renewed attention to the father-infant relationship. This study examined differences between mother and father parental reflective functioning (PRF) or parental mentalizing; that is, the parental capacity to reason about their own and their children's behaviors by taking into consideration intentional mental states. Data were collected from 120 couples with a 1-year-old child who were participants in the West Australian Peel Child Health Study. Parental mentalizing was assessed using the Parental Reflective Functioning Questionnaire (PRFQ; Luyten, Mayes, Nijssens, & Fonagy, ). Results showed that mother and father mentalizing with their children was independent and that mothers scored slightly higher levels of mentalizing than did fathers. Paternal mentalizing was weakly associated with family income and father education, and was more strongly associated with family functioning than with maternal mentalizing. Implications for theorizing on PRF and fatherhood more generally are discussed.

Supplemental Material for Influence of Father–Infant Relationship on Infant Development: A Father-Involvement Intervention in Vietnam

Supplemental Material for Influence of Father–Infant Relationship on Infant Development: A Father-Involvement Intervention in Vietnam

Establishment of the Relationship Between Fathers and Premature Infants in Neonatal Units.

Parents and their preterm infants (born between 32-37 weeks of gestation) are often overlooked by the healthcare system. And very little attention is given to the relationship parents develop with their infants in the neonatal unit (NNU). Specifically, very few studies focused on fathers and how they establish a relationship with their infants. However, we know that the father-infant relationship is extremely important for their future social development and more. This article presents the results of a qualitative study of the establishment of the father-premature infant relationship in an NNU. The study's theoretical framework was Bell's model of the parent-infant relationship, which encompasses discovery, physical proximity, communication, involvement, and emotional attachment. Ten fathers of premature infants (gestational age: 32-37 weeks) participated in 2 semistructured interviews (1 individual and 1 "in situ," ie, at the infant's bedside) during the first week following the premature birth. The results confirm the emergence of different components of the relationship between fathers and their children from the first days of hospitalization in the NNU. The commitment component is the basis for the development of other components in the relationship with their children. Furthermore, involvement influences the deployment of emotional attachment, discovery, physical proximity, and communication toward premature infants. Similarly, the 5 themes of the model can be seen as forming a dynamic nexus in which each theme influences the others. For neonatal nurses, this model of the early father-child relationship helps the understanding of the deployment of that relationship according to 5 components. Similarly, it provides awareness of the experiences of fathers so that nurses can be better equipped to support and individualize interventions tailored to their specific needs, thus helping them develop and sustain the relationship with their children. This study allows us to better understand fathers' experience regarding the establishment of the relationship to their premature infants born between 32 and 37 weeks of gestation. However, there is little understanding about the early paternal experience and more research on this dyad is necessary in neonatology.

Fathers’ Perspectives on Their Relationship With Their Infant in the Context of Breastfeeding

Research has demonstrated beneficial effects on children’s development of both breastfeeding and fathers’ involvement. Evidence has also shown that breastfeeding could influence paternal behaviors. Since there is little data available on paternal representations of breastfeeding and on its effects on paternal involvement, the aim of the present study is to bridge that gap by examining fathers’ perceptions of their relationship with their infant in the context of breastfeeding. Semistructured interviews were carried out with 43 fathers of an infant who had been exclusively breast-fed for a minimum of 6 months. These were transcribed and analyzed using thematic analysis. The fathers identified some impacts of breastfeeding on the father–infant relationship. Feeding their infant themselves appeared to be a determining moment in this relationship. These results highlight the relevance of supporting early father–infant bonding in the breastfeeding context.