Fat Recovery Research Articles

Effective grease separator management is the key to enhancing bioenergy recovery of fat, oil, and grease (FOG) and contributing to a circular bio-economy

Management of fat, oil and grease (FOG) is crucial for the recovery of renewable resources and the protection of sewer systems. This study aims to identify the potential quantities and qualities of FOG that can be acquired through optimised grease separator (GS) management approaches in hotels and restaurants during seasonal tourism. A technical survey of 20 GS from hotels and restaurants in the federal state of Tyrol, Austria was conducted. The findings revealed that 55 % of the GS were in poor condition, often due to infrequent maintenance and limited operator's knowledge. The FOG layer quality and quantity was monitored over three years and physicochemical parameters including total residue, volatile solids, total organic carbon, lipid content, and biomethane yield, were analysed. An optimised management approach, which involved up to 4 GS emptying per season, revealed a significant increase in FOG quantity for the majority of the inspected establishments, with an overall doubling of the acquired FOG volume. Based on these results, the energy potential of GS is presented in three potential management scenarios. The energy recovered from GS increased by 246 %. This highlights the importance of proper GS management in the hospitality sector, which can play a critical role in promoting environmental sustainability and renewable energy production.

Transcriptome-based deep learning analysis identifies drug candidates targeting protein synthesis and autophagy for the treatment of muscle wasting disorder

Sarcopenia, the progressive decline in skeletal muscle mass and function, is observed in various conditions, including cancer and aging. The complex molecular biology of sarcopenia has posed challenges for the development of FDA-approved medications, which have mainly focused on dietary supplementation. Targeting a single gene may not be sufficient to address the broad range of processes involved in muscle loss. This study analyzed the gene expression signatures associated with cancer formation and 5-FU chemotherapy-induced muscle wasting. Our findings suggest that dimenhydrinate, a combination of 8-chlorotheophylline and diphenhydramine, is a potential therapeutic for sarcopenia. In vitro experiments demonstrated that dimenhydrinate promotes muscle progenitor cell proliferation through the phosphorylation of Nrf2 by 8-chlorotheophylline and promotes myotube formation through diphenhydramine-induced autophagy. Furthermore, in various in vivo sarcopenia models, dimenhydrinate induced rapid muscle tissue regeneration. It improved muscle regeneration in animals with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and facilitated muscle and fat recovery in animals with chemotherapy-induced sarcopenia. As an FDA-approved drug, dimenhydrinate could be applied for sarcopenia treatment after a relatively short development period, providing hope for individuals suffering from this debilitating condition.

Exploring Tannery Solid Wastes as a Source of Animal Feed

This review delves into the processing of tannery solid waste, emphasizing fleshings and chromium-tanned leather waste. This paper centers on fat recovery, chromium elimination, and protein preservation, aiming to make them apt for animal consumption. This paper also assesses the potential of introducing such recycled products to the global market. Drawing on the literature from the past two decades, sourced comprehensively from Scopus and Web of Science, 36 articles were selected because of their significant contributions from leather production powerhouses such as India and Brazil. Fleshings have shown immense potential as animal feed, and the extraction of tallow and collagen from rawhide trimmings yields up to 98% and 93%, respectively. Fermented tannery fleshings, notably with Enterococcus faecium HAB01, also demonstrate strong antioxidant capabilities. The overarching consensus emphasizes the need for rigorous purification when dealing with chromium-containing wastes, addressing concerns tied to Cr (III) and Cr (VI). Furthermore, raw tannery fleshings stand out as a sustainable, cost-effective, and globally marketable solution for animal feed production.

Assessing the Suitability of Tomato Products as a Functional Ingredient in Paneer

This research involved the selection of suitable tomato products from amongst the puree, paste and powder for manufacture of tomato flavoured paneer. Paneer was prepared from milk standardized to 3% fat and 8.5% MSNF. The first part of the study was conducted to select the optimum level of tomato puree, paste and powder. From amongst different rate of addition (w/w of milk) of tomato products studied viz. 7.5, 10, 12.5 and 15% in case of puree and paste and 4, 5, 6 and 7% in case of powder, it was found that samples containing puree, paste and powder @ 10, 10 and 5 % were liked the most. In the next part of the study three batches of paneer viz. T1, T2 and T3 were prepared in which tomato puree, paste and powder were incorporated at 10, 10 and 5% respectively. Control (C) paneer was prepared from standardized milk. It was found that the fat, FDM and pH of T1, T2 and T3 were significantly (P<0.05) lower than that of C, whereas moisture content of T1, T2 and T3 were significantly (P<0.05) higher than C. The recovery of fat, protein and TS in T1, T2 and T3 was significantly (P<0.05) lower than C, while no significant (P>0.05) difference was observed in yield of paneer. All the textural properties viz. hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness and gumminess of samples containing tomato products were significantly (P<0.05) lower compared to control. The overall acceptability score of T1 was significantly (P<0.05) higher than that of T2 and T3 but was significantly (P<0.05) lower compared to C. The Vitamin C, total dietary fiber and antioxidant capacity of T1 was significantly (P<0.05) higher compared to C. Hence, it was concluded that good quality tomato flavoured paneer can be prepared incorporating tomato puree @ 10% w/w of milk with better functional properties compared to control.

Enzymatic dehairing of sheep skin: Recovery and characterization of commercially important wool hydrolysate and fats

Conventional dehairing methods in the traditional leather-making processes, consume large amounts of toxic chemicals and produce a toxic sludge/effluent, posing disposal challenges and consequently environmental pollution. The by-products of leather processing such as hair and fat, contain toxic chemicals. In this study, crude alkaline protease from <i>bacillus cereus strain 1-p, </i>was used to dehair sheepskin with up to 99.00% recovery of valuable wool and fat. The optimum temperature and pH for wool removal were found to be 30 <sup>°</sup>C and 11, respectively. The recovered wool was enzymatically hydrolyzed to obtain wool hydrolysate powder (48.1% yield). FTIR spectra of the wool hydrolysate showed the presence of amide A, I, and II absorption bands. Further, the amino acid analysis, revealed the presence of 15 amino acids, with glutamic acid (19.65 mole %), glycine (12.72 mole %), and leucine (9.42 mole %) being the most abundant. Fat was trans-esterified using methanol, in the presence of tert-butanol, and the resultant fatty acid methyl esters characterization was done using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis. GC/MS analysis showed the presence of 60 methyl esters corresponding to 60 fatty acids. The most abundant fatty acid was 9-octadecenoic (oleic) acid (41.64%), followed by hexa-decanoic (palmitic) acid (22.50%), and tetra-decanoic (myristic) acid (4.21%). Thermo-gravimetric analysis of the wool hydrolysate showed that it had good thermal stability. It is shown that crude alkaline protease extracted from <i>bacillus cereus strain 1-p</i> can completely eliminate the use of toxic sodium sulfide and lime in dehairing of skins/hide in tanneries, eliminating environmental pollution. Furthermore, the recovery of fat and wool using an eco-friendly enzymatic dehairing process can significantly reduce the pollution load in the effluent. The recovered wool and fats can be applied in the production of wool hydrolysate, which is high in protein content, amino acids and biodiesel.

Changes in Chemical Composition and Fatty Acid Profile of Milk and Cheese and Sensory Profile of Milk via Supplementation of Goats' Diet with Marine Algae.

The aim of the present study was to assess the effects of the low level of Schizochytrium limacinum marine algae (daily 5 g per animal) on the milk, cheese, and whey composition; fatty acid profile of milk and cheese; and the sensory profile of goat milk using an e-nose device. Thirty Alpine goats were randomly divided into two groups: the control group (C, n = 15)-fed grass with daily 600 g concentrate and the experimental group (MA, n = 15) who received the same forage and concentrate supplemented with 5 g/head/day marine algae. Animals were kept indoors and the investigation period lasted 52 days, including the first six weeks as the period of adaptation and the last 10 days as the treatment period. During the adaptation period, bulk milk samples from each group were collected once a week (0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, and 42 d), while during the treatment period (10 days), bulk milk samples from each group were taken every day, and cheese samples were processed from bulk milk each day from both groups. Marine algae supplementation had no negative effect on milk composition. In contrast, the marine algae inclusion significantly elevated the fat and protein content of whey and the protein content of cheese, as well as the recovery of fat and protein in the curd, while increasing the cheeses' moisture content on a fat-free basis. The marine algae supplementation significantly increased the docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and the rumenic acid (CLA c9t11) concentrations and decreased the n-6/n-3 ratio in the milk and cheese. There were no significant differences between the C and the MA group with regard to the sensory profiles of the milk. It can be concluded that the milk obtained from goats given daily supplementation of 5g of MA has a fatty acid profile more beneficial to human health, without any negative effects on the milk's aromatic components.

The influence of grazing and indoor systems on goat milk, brined cheese and whey quality

This study aimed to investigate whether diet and different goat production systems affect the quality of milk, white-brined cheese and whey. It also aimed to determine the suitability of goat's milk for the production of white-brined cheese. The physicochemical composition and hygienic quality of raw goat's milk were studied, as well as the fatty acid profile and nutritional indices of milk and white-brined cheese. Traditional white-brined cheeses were produced from bulk goat milk from two farms in three samples. The results confirmed that different husbandry systems and diets influence the physicochemical composition of goat milk and cheese and their fatty acid profile. Milk and cheese from grazing goats contained significantly more (p<0.05) fat, protein, total solids and a higher percentage of cheese yield. Nutritional indices were also more favourable, with a lower atherogenic (AI) and thrombogenic (TI) index and a higher health-promoting index (HHP) and hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic ratio (HH). Goat grazing contributed to a higher content of n-3 fatty acids in milk and cheese and thus to a lower n-6/n-3 ratio. Cheese-making efficiency and protein recovery in the curd (%REC) was better with pasture milk, whereas fat recovery was better with milk from housed goats. Consumers rated the unripened white cheeses from both production systems the highest. In addition, the production of white cheese with brine results in good quality whey with significant health benefits. Natural pasture provides significantly more benefits to goats than confinement, especially in the early stages of use. This contributes to the high nutritional value of goat's milk, cheese and whey.

Cheese yield and nutrients recovery in the curd predicted by Fourier-transform spectra from individual sheep milk samples

The objectives of this study were to explore the use of Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy on individual sheep milk samples for predicting cheese-making traits, and to test the effect of the farm variability on their prediction accuracy. For each of 121 ewes from 4 farms, a laboratory model cheese was produced, and 3 actual cheese yield traits (fresh cheese, cheese solids, and cheese water) and 4 milk nutrient recovery traits (fat, protein, total solids, and energy) in the curd were measured. Calibration equations were developed using a Bayesian approach with 2 different scenarios: (1) a random cross-validation (80% calibration; 20% validation set), and (2) a leave-one-out validation (3 farms used as calibration, and the remaining one as validation set) to assess the accuracy of prediction of samples from external farms, not included in calibration set. The best performance was obtained for predicting the yield and recovery of total solids, justifying for the practical application of the method at sheep population and dairy industry levels. Performances for the remaining traits were lower, but still useful for the monitoring of the milk processing in the case of fresh curd and recovery of energy. Insufficient accuracies were found for the recovery of protein and fat, highlighting the complex nature of the relationships among the milk nutrients and their recovery in the curd. The leave-one-out validation procedure, as expected, showed lower prediction accuracies, as a result of the characteristics of the farming systems, which were different between calibration and validation sets. In this regard, the inclusion of information related to the farm could help to improve the prediction accuracy of these traits. Overall, a large contribution to the prediction of the cheese-making traits came from the areas known as "water" and "fingerprint" regions. These findings suggest that, according to the traits studied, the inclusion of water regions for the development of the prediction equation models is fundamental to maintain a high prediction accuracy. However, further studies are necessary to better understand the role of specific absorbance peaks and their contribution to the prediction of cheese-making traits, to offer reliable tools applicable along the dairy ovine chain.

Obtaining Biodiesel from Fat Extracted from Solid Waste Produced in the Fleshing Stage of Leather Manufacturing

Tallow is produced in leather manufacturing, particularly in the fleshing stage. It contains large amounts of fat, which, in most industrial plants, pollutes water and soil due to poor disposal. In order to take advantage of this solid waste, chemical processes have been applied to transform the fats extracted from tallow into biodiesel. In this work, an extraction technique involving non-polar solvents pressurized at 15 psi. With gasoline, a 51,0% fat recovery was obtained. The quality of the extracted fat was determined by analyzing density, viscosity, melting point, moisture, acidity, and acidity, peroxides, saponification, and iodine indices. Biodiesel was obtained via transesterification reactions with methanol and sodium hydroxide. The content of methyl esters produced in the reaction was characterized by means of gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, where the methyl esters of palmitic and oleic fatty acids were identified as major components.

Recovery of Industrially Useful Hair and Fat from Enzymatic Unhairing of Goatskins during Leather Processing

Leather processing not only serves social needs by putting into use the meat industry’s by-products (hides and skins) but also makes a significant contribution to global economic growth through trade and job creation. In the wake of globalization, however, leather manufacturers are facing new challenges in meeting environmental imperatives and improving the utilization of wastes generated during leather processing. This study describes the recovery of hair and fatfrom fleshings obtained after enzymatic unhairing of goatskins using a protease from an isolate of Bacillus cereus Strain 1-p. The recovered hair and fats were further characterized to facilitate recommendations for different industrial applications. The following hair properties were visually examined and evaluated by hand; straight length, density and uniformity, hair strength and overall quality. The fats were analyzed by characterizing the fatty acid composition using theGas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS analysis). The recovered hair was intact and rated to be of average to good quality. The fat characterization indicated that methyl 9Z-octadecenoate (9Z-heptadecenoic acid; oleic acid) was the most abundant fatty acid with an abundance of 31.65%. The sulfide-free fats and intact hair, therefore, were recommended for use in various industrial applications such as manufacturing of poultry feedstuff, organic fertilizers, biodiesel and biofuels, fatliquoring agents, soaps and cosmetics after further purification where necessary. The hair and fats recovered from this study are particularly advantageous over those recovered from sulfide unhairing systems as they are free from any sulfides or lime contamination thus easier to purify and use. The study concluded that the use of the enzyme extract from Bacillus cereus Strain 1-p to unhair goatskins facilitated the recovery of valuable hairand fats that can be used for other industrial applications.

Assessment of facial autologous fat grafts using Dixon magnetic resonance imaging.

Autologous fat grafting is a procedure that treats soft tissue defects by reallocating fat to improve a patient's physical appearance. Imaging methods may be used to evaluate and monitor the grafted fat after transplantation. The goal of imaging is to examine the signal and volume of the grafted fat after autologous fat grafting during the adipose tissue recovery. However, researchers have yet to examine the feasibility of using fat-only imaging to assess the autologous fat graft. In this prospective and observational study, 46 injected sides in 23 female patients (age 35±7.8 years) were included in the image evaluation. The patients underwent autologous fat grafting surgery with filtered and washed fat. A total of 16, 18, and 12 sides were scanned 7 days, 3 months, and 1 year after fat grafting, respectively. Fat-only images were obtained using Dixon imaging, and then the image quality and contrast of the T1W and T2W were rated to evaluate the application of this method when imaging the autologous fat. The signal and volume of the autologous fat graft were recorded to assess the retention during recovery of the autologous fat tissue. Fat-only T1W magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was used to identify and delineate grafted fat because this method had better image quality and image differentiation than did T2W MRI. The average signal contrast and retention rate measured 7 days postoperation (28.8%±4.7%; 94.1%±5.8%) was the highest and then decreased at 3 months (16.3%±2.1%; 48.7%±17.3%) and 1 year (3.3%±1.3%, 33.1%±12.9%) after surgery. There were statistically significant differences between the signal and volume retention measurements at each postoperative recovery phase. The T1W fat-only images produced by Dixon MRI is a feasible approach for identifying grafted fat and measure postoperative changes during clinical evaluation. We found a significant decrease in signal contrast and volume of the grafted fat from the surgery date to 3 months postoperation and from 3 months to 1-year postoperation.

Effect of the casein to fat ratio on the functional properties of Prato cheese

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of casein to fat ratios (0.68, 0.72, and 0.76) on the functional properties of Prato cheese at 2, 15, 30, and 45 days of ripening. The different ratios did not interfere with the physicochemical characteristics, pH, Aw, proteolysis indices, color parameters, sliceability and sensory profile of the cheeses among the treatments. However, pH, proteolysis indices, texture profile, L* and b* color parameters of the cheeses changed through the ripening time. The cheeses made from milk standardized to casein/fat ratio of 0.68 presented lower chewiness values. The casein to fat ratio of 0.68 increased the protein and fat recoveries, and provided greater meltability and greater formation of free oil when compared to cheeses made from milk with casein to fat ratio of 0.76. Therefore, casein to fat ratio of 0.72 is recommended for the production of Prato cheese as the cheese presents good functional properties at this value, such as intermediate melting and chewiness, and less release of free oil.

Preparation of curcumin fortified buffalo ghee

Attempts were made in the present investigation to standardize the ghee manufacturing method for preparation of curcumin fortified ghee. Sensory evaluation and fat recovery revealed that ghee preparation using creamery butter method was more preferable than desi and direct cream method. Fermenting cream using NCDC 352 starter @ 2% inoculation rate yielded sensorially superior ghee in least fermentation time. Sensory attributes of ghee were affected upon addition of curcumin beyond 250 ppm; however, the samples containing upto 350 ppm of curcumin were acceptable to the sensory panelists. During cooking, it was observed that increasing the heating temperature improved the sensory attributes while increasing the heating duration decreased the same. The study will be useful for dairy industries looking for functionality enhancement of ghee.Â

Composition and aptitude for cheese-making of milk from cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, dromedary camels, and donkeys

Bovines produce about 83% of the milk and dairy products consumed by humans worldwide, the rest represented by bubaline, caprine, ovine, camelid, and equine species, which are particularly important in areas of extensive pastoralism. Although milk is increasingly used for cheese production, the cheese-making efficiency of milk from the different species is not well known. This study compares the cheese-making ability of milk sampled from lactating females of the 6 dairy species in terms of milk composition, coagulation properties (using lactodynamography), curd-firming modeling, nutrients recovered in the curd, and cheese yield (through laboratory model-cheese production). Equine (donkey) milk had the lowest fat and protein content and did not coagulate after rennet addition. Buffalo and ewe milk yielded more fresh cheese (25.5 and 22.9%, respectively) than cow, goat, and dromedary milk (15.4, 11.9, and 13.8%, respectively). This was due to the greater fat and protein contents of the former species with respect to the latter, but also to the greater recovery of fat in the curd of bubaline (88.2%) than in the curd of camelid milk (55.0%) and consequent differences in the recoveries of milk total solids and energy in the curd; protein recovery, however, was much more similar across species (from 74.7% in dromedaries to 83.7% in bovine milk). Compared with bovine milk, the milk from the other Artiodactyla species coagulated more rapidly, reached curd firmness more quickly (especially ovine milk), had a more pronounced syneresis (especially caprine milk), had a greater potential asymptotical curd firmness (except dromedary and goat milk), and reached earlier maximum curd firmness (especially caprine and ovine milk). The maximum measured curd firmness was greater for bubaline and ovine milk, intermediate for bovine and caprine milk, and lower for camelid milk. The milk of all ruminant species can be used to make cheese, but, to improve efficiency, cheese-making procedures need to be optimized to take into account the large differences in their coagulation, curd-firming, and syneresis properties.

Electrocoagulation-electroflotation for primary treatment of animal rendering wastewater to enable recovery of fats

Rendering wastewater (RW) contains high levels of fats from the rendering process that recovers fats and proteins from waste animal fatty tissue. Primary treatment to remove floatable fats is necessary to avoid issues for downstream RW treatment. Recovery of waste fats that can be sent back to the rendering process can be an additional gain from RW primary treatment. Dissolved air flotation (DAF) with the addition of polymer coagulants is commonly used for primary treatment of RW, but this has two disadvantages: polymer coagulants are undesirable contaminants in reused fats and the fat quality is degraded through oxidation by pressurized air during DAF treatment. In this work, RW was treated by electrocoagulation-electroflotation (EC-EF) in a novel horizontally-placed electrode pair design as an alternative to DAF. EC-EF performed better in COD removal with increasing current densities. In situ flotation within the electrochemical cell from hydrogen gas bubbles produced was able to concentrate and preserve long chain fatty acids (LCFA). Treatment at higher current densities within the electrochemical cell generated surplus coagulants and allowed further coagulation in a separate following step. Longer mixing duration in the post-EC-EF treatment step enhanced overall COD removal. The overall COD removal for EC-EF with applied current densities of 2 mA/cm2 reached 69.5 ± 4.8% after 15 min of mixing at 100 rpm followed by 15 min of sedimentation. EC-EF thus provides competitive treatment performance and recovery of well-preserved rendering products.

Influence of the Ratio of Sheep and Cow Milk on the Composition and Yield Efficiency of Lećevački Cheese

Lećevački cheese is a traditional Croatian hard cheese, which belongs to the group of hard Mediterranean cheeses produced from mixed milk (cow and sheep). The aim of this research was to determine the influence of different ratios and compositions of sheep milk on the composition and yield of Lećevački cheese. A total of 15 batches of Lećevački cheese were selected containing different ratios of sheep and cow milk from the regular production of a dairy plant. The ratio of sheep milk was as follows: up to 39%, from 40 to 44%, and from 45 to 50%. For each ratio, five batches were randomly selected. A higher ratio of sheep milk caused a noticeable increase in fat, protein, lactose, and total solids content, while the content of solids-not-fat significantly (p < 0.05) increased. A similar trend was found for casein content (p < 0.1). The highest ratio of sheep milk in mixed milk increased (p < 0.05) the protein content by almost 1%. However, the results showed that it is not reasonable to increase the sheep milk ratio in mixed milk above 44% (v/v) because it causes a higher (p < 0.01) moisture content in the cheese, as well as a lower fat content (p < 0.01) and fat recovery (p = 0.07) during the manufacturing of Lećevački cheese.

Electrocoagulation-Electroflotation for Primary Treatment of Animal Rendering Wastewater to Enable Recovery of Fats

Rendering wastewater (RW) contains high levels of fats collected from material processed during rendering. Primary treatment of RW to remove floatable fats is necessary for to avoid issues in downstream treatment. Recovery of waste fats that can be sent back to the rendering process can be of value to the rendering enterprise. Dissolved air flotation (DAF) is commonly used for primary treatment of RW but requires polymer coagulants that must be minimized to keep their concentrations low in the recovered fat stream. Oxidation of fats caused by dissolved air is another undesirable effect of DAF. In this work, RW was treated by electrocoagulation-electroflotation (EC-EF) in a novel horizontally-placed electrode pair design as an alternative to DAF. EC-EF performed better in COD removal with increasing current densities. In situ flotation within the electrochemical cell was able to concentrate and preserve long chain fatty acids (LCFA). Treatment at higher current densities within the electrochemical cell generated surplus cation release and allowed further coagulation in a subsequent step. Longer mixing duration in the post-electrochemical treatment step resulted in increased overall COD removal. The overall COD removal for EC-EF with applied current densities of 2 mA/cm2 reached 69.49 ± 4.83% after 15 minutes of mixing at 100 rpm followed by 15 minutes of sedimentation. EC-EF thus not only provides competitive treatment performance for RW, but also recovery of well-preserved rendering products.

The mineral profile affects the coagulation pattern and cheese-making efficiency of bovine milk

Natural variations in milk minerals, their relationships, and their associations with the coagulation process and cheese-making traits present an opportunity for the differentiation of milk destined for high-quality natural products, such as traditional specialties or Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) cheeses. The aim of this study was to quantify the effects of the native contents of Ca, P, Na, K, and Mg on 18 traits describing traditional milk coagulation properties (MCP), curd firming over time (CFt) equation parameters, cheese yield (CY) measures, and nutrient recoveries in the curd (REC) using models that either included or omitted the simultaneous effects of milk fat and casein contents. The results showed that, by including milk fat and casein and the minerals in the statistical model, we were able to determine the specific effects of each mineral on coagulation and cheese-making efficiency. In general, about two-thirds of the apparent effects of the minerals on MCP and the CFt equation parameters are actually mediated by their association with milk composition, especially casein content, whereas only one-third of the effects are direct and independent of milk composition. In the case of cheese-making traits, the effects of the minerals were mediated only negligibly by their association with milk composition. High Ca content had a positive effect on the coagulation pattern and cheese-making traits, favoring water retention in the curd in particular. Phosphorus positively affected the cheese-making traits in that it was associated with an increase in CY in terms of curd solids, and in all the nutrient recovery traits. However, a very high P content in milk was associated with lower fat recovery in the curd. The variation in the Na content in milk only mildly affected coagulation, whereas with regard to cheese-making, protein recovery was negatively associated with high concentrations of this mineral. Potassium seemed not to be actively involved in coagulation and the cheese-making process. Magnesium content tended to slow coagulation and reduce CY measures. Further studies on the relationships of minerals with casein and protein fractions could deepen our knowledge of the role of all minerals in coagulation and the cheese-making process.

Valorisation of Coffee Roasting By-Products: Recovery of Silverskin Fat By Supercritical CO2 Extraction

Recovery of agro and food-industrial waste and their valorisation via green technologies can help to outline new concepts of industrial strategies. In this contest, a fat enriched of added-value components was extracted from coffee silverskin by applying a supercritical fluid extraction technique (sc-CO2). An appropriate modulation of process parameters like temperature (T = 35, 50, 60 °C) and pressure (p = 200–300 bar) influences the fat yield and the chemical composition, opening the way for targeted extraction. The extraction time, the organic solvent use and the energy consume were reduced compared to Soxhlet. Moreover, a mathematical model was constructed based on the experimental data collected, employed apparatus, and physico-chemical characteristics of biomass, pointing to a possible industrial scale-up. The experimental results are accompanied by a preliminary cost of manufacturing (COM), highlighting how the high investment for the apparatus is compensated by several benefits.Graphic

The Influence of Milk Standardization on Chemical Composition, Fat and Protein Recovery, Yield and Sensory Properties of Croatian PGI Lički Škripavac Cheese.

The aim of this work was to evaluate the influence of cheese milk standardization on chemical composition, fat and protein recovery, yield and sensory properties of Croatian soft Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) Lički škripavac cheese. Standardization of milk to the casein/fat ratio of 0.7 was carried out by adding skimmed milk powder (SMP) to cheese milk and by skimming part of the milk fat. Results showed that losses of fat by whey were significantly (p < 0.05) lower after Lički škripavac cheese produced from standardized milk by skimming part of the milk fat. Standardization of cheese milk by addition of SMP caused higher losses of protein (p < 0.05) and total solids (p < 0.0001) by whey. Both methods of cheese milk standardization caused a significant (p < 0.01) decrease in milk fat and fat in dry matter content in cheese. In contrast, standardization of cheese milk caused a significant (p < 0.01) increase in protein content in cheese milk. Moisture in non-fat substance (MNFS) significantly (p < 0.05) decreased. Optimization of the casein/fat ratio did not cause a significant increase in fat recovery, but protein recovery significantly increased (p < 0.01). Addition of SMP to cheese milk significantly (p < 0.01) increased actual and adjusted cheese yield. The addition of SMP led to a noticeably higher (p = 0.10) sensory score of Lički škripavac cheese.