Farmers In Korea Research Articles

Subjective Perception Types of Older Adults Living Alone as Farmers in Korea: A Q Methodology Study

This study explores the psychological characteristics of older adults living alone as farmers in South Korea, categorising their subjective experiences. Using Q methodology, interviews were conducted with participants from Seosan, Chungcheong Province, South Korea, on 19 and 22 June 2023. A total of 25 participants conducted Q sorting with 33 finalized Q sample items in three locations: Chungju, Chungcheong Province, on 14 July 2023; Ildong, Gyeonggi Province, on 28 July 2023; and Seosan, Chungcheong Province, on 14 August 2023. The Q sorting results were analysed using the QUANAL program and categorised into four types. Type 1, Balanced Life Pursuit, reflects satisfaction across various aspects of life, such as relationships, health, economy, and psychological wellbeing. Type 2, Independent Life and Improvement-Seeking, pursues independence but experiences loneliness due to the absence of a spouse, while still seeking to improve their life. Type 3, Relationship and Care Needed, highlights a need for relationships and care. Finally, Type 4, Family and Work-Focused, prioritises family and farming work. These findings provide a foundation for developing customised support programs to address the specific needs of different types of older adults living alone as farmers in South Korea.

농촌특화 성평등 교육프로그램 개발을 위한 농촌지역 성평등 교육 참여자의 경험적 인식 분석

The purpose of this study was to suggest ways to improve specialized gender equality training programs for rural areas as tools for empowering women farmers based on in-depth interviews with villagers and professional trainers. Since the launch of the Support of Female Farmers and Fishermen Act in 2001, various policies have been implemented to support women farmers in Korea. In line with the recent basic plan to nurture female farmers for the years 2021-2025, which aims to extend gender equality education to rural areas, the first batch of specialized gender equality trainers for rural areas completed the course in 2021. Despite these institutional efforts to support gender equality education in rural areas, the current training courses need improvement to reflect the complex reality faced by women in these areas. In addition to the double burden shouldered by women farmers, the patriarchal culture consolidated by powerful male leaders makes gender equality training in rural areas a unique challenge. The experiences and perceptions of the villagers were analyzed and suggestions were made, categorized into three themes: access to the training, the acceptability of the contents, and the self-efficacy of the trainees. Based on the perceptions of the trainers, suggestions were categorized as follows: the importance of the curriculum modules and trainers’ expertise, expansion of the target population and implementation of the system, tailored training courses for rural residents. To sum up, this study suggests enhancing the agency of women farmers and changing the patriarchal rural society as the ultimate goal of gender equality training in rural areas.

Comparisons of working conditions and health-related problems between older male and female crop farmers.

Although the number of farmers in Korea is declining, the proportion of older farmers aged ≥60 increases. This study aims to analyze gender differences in working conditions, exposure to risk factors, and health problems of older crop farmers aged ≥60. This study used data from the 5th Korean Working Conditions Survey (KWCS) data of 818 male and 985 female crop farmers aged ≥60 years. This study showed that older female farmers had higher ratios of living alone (45.0% vs. 13.4%, p < 0.001), lower education levels (80.7% vs. 53.4%, p < 0.001), and lower average incomes (1.565 vs. 2.036 million KRW, p < 0.001) than that of males. Among subjective scores on the exposure of risk factors, only females' repetitive motion (4.923) and awkward posture (4.415) scores were higher than that of males' repetitive motion (4.601) (p < 0.001) and awkward posture (4.159) scores (p = 0.001). However, female's health problem rates on upper limb pain (68.3%), lower extremity pain (67.6%), backache (48.4%), overall fatigue (44.8%), and headache and eyestrain (25.0%) were higher than that of male's complaint rates on upper limb pain (48.5%) (p < 0.001), lower extremity pain (53.3%) (p < 0.001), backache (35.0%) (p < 0.001), overall fatigue (39.5%) (p = 0.024), and headache and eyestrain (19.4%) (p = 0.005). The rate of depression symptoms in females (54.6%), with a high proportion of single-person households, was higher than that of males (46.9%) (p = 0.001). The musculoskeletal pains and depression symptoms of older female farmers are prevalent, and efforts and support are required to improve working conditions.

Hearing impairment among Korean farmers, based on a 3-year audiometry examination.

Work noise exposure among farmers can cause hearing loss. Farmers are exposed to hazardous noise from equipment and domestic animals, and experience high rates of noise-induced hearing loss. The aim of our study was to evaluate the hearing thresholds of farmers in Korea. This study is the first to evaluate hearing impairment in Korean farmers nationwide. There have been few studies that have performed audiometric testing to measure hearing impairment at the national level in Korea. Through the Farm Work Safety Model Project among the 40 villages in which inhabitants received health check-ups from 2006-2008, 2,027 people from 35 villages were targeted (957 people in 16 villages in 2006, 436 people in five villages in 2007, and 634 people in 14 villages in 2008) and underwent pure tone audiometry tests. 2,027 people from 35 villages underwent pure tone audiometry tests through the Farm Work Safety Model Project. The tests were conducted using a portable audiometer, and air conduction thresholds were determined. Hearing impairment at 3kHz and above was more prevalent in men than in women. The prevalence of moderate-to-profound hearing impairment was 19.6% in the total study population and increased with age. It is proposed that the high prevalence rate of farmers' hearing impairment may be due to excessive workplace noise. To manage farmers' hearing health, precise evaluations of farmers' hearing acuity and noise exposure on farms should be conducted. This study might be a stepping-stone to protect farmers' hearing health.

Prevalence of Upper Extremity Musculoskeletal Diseases and Disability among Fruit Tree Farmers in Korea: Cross-Sectional Study.

PurposeThe aim of this study was to examine the prevalence of upper extremity musculoskeletal (MSK) diseases and to identify factors influencing disability among fruit tree farmers in Korea.Materials and MethodsOf the 1150 subjects of the Namgaram study, 460 fruit tree farmers completed a questionnaire and underwent clinical evaluations, including physical assessments, laboratory tests, simple radiographic examinations, and magnetic resonance imaging studies of the upper extremities. Disability was assessed using the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand outcome measure. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics and regression analyses using SPSS Win 24.0.ResultsThe prevalences of upper extremity MSK diseases were 60.4% for rotator cuff tear, 20.9% for golf elbow, 40.9% for tennis elbow, and 58.0% for hand osteoarthritis. Disability in fruit farmers was associated with female sex (B=−4.47, p<0.001), smoking (B=−4.00, p=0.026), depression (B=2.83, p<0.001), working hours (B=0.96, p=0.001), injuries of the arms (B=10.78, p<0.001) and shoulders (B=6.75, p<0.001), and numbers of upper extremity MSK diseases (B=2.02, p=0.001), with 26.5% of the variance explained (R2=0.265, Durbin-Watson test=1.81, p<0.001).ConclusionFruit tree farmers remain at risk for MSK diseases of the upper extremities. Disability tended to worsen with more MSK diseases. It is necessary to not only educate farmers about prevention strategies, but also to develop an effective management system for agricultural work-related MSK diseases and a surveillance system at the government level for the health problems of farmers.

Prevalence and Characteristics of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Isolates in Pigs and Pig Farmers in Korea.

In this study, we investigated the prevalence and characteristics of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolates from pigs and pig farmers in Korea. A total of 1245 nasal swabs were collected from pigs and farmers at 53 pig farms in nine provinces from 2012 to 2016. The prevalence of MRSA was 7.9% (88/1119) in pigs and 16.7% (21/126) in farmers. Among 119 farmers working on conventional farms, 21 (17.6%) tested positive for MRSA. However, no MRSA was detected in either pigs or farmers at four organic farms. The individual pig-level prevalence of MRSA differed between age groups, with the percentage of positive samples being highest in weaners (17.3%), followed by growers (9.0%), piglets (6.5%), finishers (4.4%), and sows (0%). Two different lineages of MRSA were detected among the 109 isolates from pigs and farmers: (1) livestock-associated types of MRSA belonging to 27 isolates of ST541-t034-V, 24 isolates of ST398-t571-V, 17 isolates of ST398-t034 variant (G420A)-V, and one isolate of ST541-t8588-V; and (2) community-associated types of MRSA belonging to 21 isolates of ST188-t189-IV, 14 isolates of ST72-t324-IV, three isolates of ST72-t664-IV, one isolate of ST72-t148-IV, and one isolate of ST72-t5440-IV. Identical genotypes were detected in both pigs and farmers at six farms. New MRSA clones were isolated from pigs (ST398-t034 (G420A)-V, ST188-t189-IV, and ST398-t571-V) and pig farmers (ST541-t8588-V and ST72-t5440-IV). The prevalence of MRSA was also correlated with antibiotic usage, and the clones showed diversification between pigs and farmers. Ultimately, the increased frequency and diversification of livestock-associated MRSA could be a potential threat to public health in Korea. To our knowledge, this is the first study to report the prevalence and characteristics of MRSA in pigs and pig farmers in Korea.

Serologic Survey and Risk Factors for Coxiella burnetii Infection among Dairy Cattle Farmers in Korea.

BackgroundThe zoonotic disease Q fever is caused by Coxiella burnetii and usually affects high-risk human populations. We conducted a serological survey of dairy cattle farmers in Korea to determine seroreactivity and identify risk factors for C. burnetii infection.MethodsThis cross-sectional study included 1,824 of 7,219 dairy cattle farms (25.3%) in the study region. The selected dairy cattle farmers visited the nearest public health centers or branches with completed questionnaires. Serum samples from the farmers were tested using an indirect immunofluorescence assay to detect phase II C. burnetii immunoglobulin (Ig) G or M antibodies.ResultsA total of 1,222 dairy cattle farmers from 784 dairy cattle farms (43.0%) participated in this study, and 11.0% (134/1,222) exhibited seroreactivity, defined as a phase II antigen IgG or IgM titer ≥ 1:16. In the multivariate analysis, male sex, residence in Gyeonggi Province, a larger herd size, and ocular/oral contact with birth products during calf delivery were significantly associated with a higher risk of C. burnetii infection. Furthermore, the risk was significantly lower among farmers who always wore protective gloves while cleaning cattle excretion, compared to those who sometimes or rarely wore protective gloves.ConclusionDairy cattle farmers should exercise caution by avoiding ocular/oral contact with birth products during calf delivery and by using protective equipment (including gloves).

The Determining Factors of Agricultural Income of Returning Farmers in Korea

This study investigates the factors that determine the agricultural income of returning farmers in South Korea. For this purpose, Heckman’s two-step method is applied to the survey data of 192 returning farmers who have settled in rural areas and 251 potential returning farmers. According to the empirical results, farming experiences of returning farmers and participation in agricultural production organizations increased agricultural income. By contrast, neither formal schooling nor motivation for rural migration had a significant effect on the agricultural income of returning farmers. Notably, the age of returning farmers and agricultural income illustrate an inverted-U re-lationship, wherein agricultural income reaches its peak in the late 40s, and subsequently declines. Agricultural income increases as size of land increases. On the contrary, agricultural income is negatively related to the size of off-farm income of returning farmers. These findings suggest that, for higher agricultural income, policies should be directed towards promoting participation of returning farmers in agricultural production organizations, while developing strategies for easing the difficulties associated with expanding the area of cultivated land.

Paraquat use among farmers in Korea after the ban

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to examine the proportion of paraquat use among farmers and to describe their epidemiologic characteristics after the paraquat ban in 2012. We interviewed 249 farmers in Korea in 2014. Approximately 20% of the farmers reported using paraquat in 2014. Farmers with longer farming experience, longer pesticide application years, and upland farming reported an increased risk of paraquat use although the trend was not statistically significant. The majority of the farmers used preexisting paraquat (85.7%), but some farmers purchased it illegally (14.3%). Farmers who used paraquat perceived paraquat as a dangerous chemical; however, they disagreed with the necessity of the paraquat ban.

Ergonomic Assessment for Manual Materials Handling of Livestock Feed by Elderly Farmers in Korea

Objective: The purpose of the study is to evaluate appropriate weight for aged farmers in manually handling livestock feed in bags using ergonomic methods.BR Background: In the livestock industry in South Korea, despite the trend of aging of labor manpower, heavy items are still manually handled in many farms. In particular, among stockbreeding works, the handling of feed in bags weighing 25~30kg is reported as a cause of frequent injuries and musculoskeletal system diseases. However, studies on the standard for recommended weight allowed considering the physical characteristics of aged farmers older than 60 years with greatly decreased physical strength and muscle strength are insufficient.BR Method: To evaluate appropriate weight for handling of heavy livestock feed in bags, physical techniques for measuring recognized levels of physical work loads, the NLE (NIOSH lifting equation) a method that is an observation type technique, and an ergonomic modeling technique to predict compressive force imposed on L5/S1 were used. Subjects who participated in the experiment were organized into two groups of males/females with mean age exceeding 60 years, and lifting tasks were evaluated for nine weight levels.BR Results: Based on the results of psychophysical measurement, females showed a tendency of more drastic increases compared to males when weight was over 19kg. The results of estimation of regression models for the weight, 18.0 kg (r²=0.97) and 15.3kg (r²=0.97) were evaluated as stable load for males and females, respectively. In addition, both the observation type evaluation and ergonomic model evaluation showed stable loads in a range of 15~18kg.BR Conclusion: Given the results of the study, the weight of the feed in bags currently distributed to farms can become a cause of not only overexertion but also farm work related disasters such as musculoskeletal disorders and safety accidents. Providing livestock feed in bags weighing not more than 19kg for aged farmers is judged desirable, and managerial improvement for this matter is considered necessary. BR Application: The results of the present study can be utilized as useful data for institutional improvement of the weight of livestock feed in bags.

Effects on Rice Growth of System of Rice Intensification under No-till Paddy in Korea

The objectives of this research were to investigate the system of rice intensification (SRI) on early growth, grain yield, and yield components under Chinese milk vetch residue-mulched no-tillage cropping systems at silt loam soil. The field was prepared as a split-plot design with three replications, main plots consisted of Dongjinbyeo, and Sobibyeo as a cultivar, and subplots consisted of <TEX>$10{\times}10$</TEX> cm, <TEX>$20{\times}20$</TEX> cm, and <TEX>$30{\times}30$</TEX> cm as a planting density. Weed infestation during rice growing season was more severe in wider planting density <TEX>$30{\times}30$</TEX> at 35 days after transplanting (DAT), and <TEX>$20{\times}20$</TEX> cm at 95 DAT in both Sobibyeo and Dongjinbyeo. The maximum plant height was recorded in Sobibyeo compared with Dongjinbyeo, <TEX>$10{\times}10$</TEX> cm and <TEX>$20{\times}20$</TEX> cm planting density compared with <TEX>$30{\times}30$</TEX> cm from 20 DAT until 60 DAT. Among the three planting densities, SPAD values were significantly greater in planting density of <TEX>$20{\times}20$</TEX> cm both in Sobibyeo and Dongjinbyeo followed by <TEX>$30{\times}30$</TEX> cm compared with closer planting density of <TEX>$10{\times}10$</TEX> cm. The lowest grain yield was observed in wider planting density of <TEX>$30{\times}30$</TEX> in both Sobibyeo and Dongjinbyeo due to lower number of panicle per unit area. Our findings suggest that optimum planting density for SRI in no-tillage paddy was <TEX>$20{\times}20$</TEX> cm and it should be useful the systems to small-scale rice farmers in Korea as a sustainable farming system.

Disease Prevalence and Mortality among Agricultural Workers in Korea

The aim of this paper was to provide an overview of mortality and disease prevalence related to occupational diseases among agricultural workers in Korea. We evaluated the age-standardized mortality rates and the prevalence of chronic diseases and compared them with those of other populations using death registration data from 2004 through 2008 and the 2005 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. In addition, we conducted a literature review on published articles examining the health status of farmers in Korea. Agricultural workers have a significantly higher mortality of cancer, tuberculosis, chronic respiratory diseases, liver diseases, suicide, motor and non-motor vehicle accidents. Compared to other populations, farmers have higher prevalence rates of arthritis and intervertebral disc disorders. The literature review revealed a number of work-related diseases among farmers, such as musculoskeletal diseases, pesticide poisoning, infections, and respiratory and neurologic diseases. Korean farmers demonstrate a distinct pattern of mortality and disease prevalence compared to other populations. Although lifestyle factors remain important contributors to those deaths and diseases, our study suggests that occupation is a major determinant as well. Intensive programs such as surveillance systems, therefore, should be developed in order to identify and prevent work-related diseases among agricultural workers in Korea.

Nutrient Availability and Growth Rate Associated with Three Different Feed Types Used by Olive Flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus, Farmers in Korea

We estimated the digestibility and growth rate of juvenile olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) on three diets: raw fish-based moist pellets, moist pellets, and extruded pellets. The diets were created using commercially available methods, and a basic formulated powder. A reference diet was used to compare feed digestibility and the fish growth rate achieved using the experimental diets. The apparent digestibility coefficients (ADCs) of protein for raw fish-based moist pellets and moist pellets were significantly higher (P<0.05) than those for extruded pellets and the reference diet. The ADCs of nitrogen-free extracts (NFE) of extruded pellets and moist pellets were significantly higher (P<0.05) than those for raw fish-based moist pellets and the reference diet. Fish that were fed with the raw fish-based moist pellets showed the greatest weight gain (452.4%), which was not significantly different from that of fish fed with extruded pellets (414.4%; P>0.05). These results indicate that the higher protein efficiency in fish fed with extruded pellets can result in good growth performance within flounder culture systems.

Work-related Injuries and Diseases of Farmers in Korea

It is very difficult to understand the current status of work-related injuries and diseases in farmers comprehensively. However, various work-related injuries and diseases in Korean farmers are thought to occur, including injuries by farming machinery and tools, pesticide poisoning, peasant syndrome, vinyl house disease, respiratory diseases, infectious and skin diseases. Particularly zoonoses including brucellosis, tsutsugamushi disease tend to increase, and musculoskeletal problems by awkward posture, repetition, and long duration work are on the rise. Moreover Korean farmers themselves do not pay much attention to these problems and farmers are not considered a priority by health care facilities either since the number of people involved in farming has declined and have been old aged dramatically in recent years. Yet at the national level, many efforts and concerns for improving agricultural safety and health have recently been made and these issues have become a major focus of research in Korea. This paper was prepared to elucidate the current status of the work-related injuries and diseases of Korean farmers and to provide basic data for future studies.

Detection of major bacterial and viral pathogens in trash fish used to feed cultured flounder in Korea

The possibility of trash fish food-direct pathogen infection to cultured flounder is a very important concern of fish farmers in Korea. A total of 26 groups of trash fish and shrimp samples were collected from 11 hatcheries on Jeju Island. Four groups and two groups of homogenized frozen trash fish samples were directly isolated and confirmed by PCR assays with S. iniae and S. parauberis, respectively. One iridovirus PCR positive result was obtained from one group of mixed trash fish samples. Phylogenetic analysis based on the MCP gene from one iridovirus strain was genetically closely related to seabass, red sea bream, rock bream, turbot, and Korean flounder iridovirus. Betanodaviruses were not detected from the trash fish samples. Based on these results, trash fish can be one of the sources or carriers of bacterial and viral pathogens for feeding cultured flounder in Korea.

An Analysis of Risk-averse Attitudes of Vegetables Farmers in Korea

An Analysis of Risk-averse Attitudes of Vegetables Farmers in Korea

Spider mite allergy in apple-cultivating farmers: European red mite ( Panonychus ulmi) and two-spotted spider mite ( Tetranychus urticae) may be important allergens in the development of work-related asthma and rhinitis symptoms

Background: Recent investigations have suggested that the citrus red mite ( Panonychus citri ) is the most important allergen affecting citrus-cultivating farmers with asthma, allergic rhinitis, or both. Objective: We sought to evaluate type I hypersensitivity to spider mites, particularly the European red mite ( Panonychus ulmi ) and the two-spotted spider mite ( Tetranychus urticae ), and to determine the relationship between hypersensitivity to spider mites and respiratory dysfunction. Methods: We performed a cross-sectional survey. Questionnaires were given, and skin prick tests for 11 inhalant allergens common in Korea and 2 species of spider mites (European red mite and two-spotted spider mite) were performed in 725 apple-cultivating farmers in Korea. Results: Results of skin prick tests in the apple farmers indicated that European red mite (23.2%) was the most common sensitizing allergen, followed by Tyrophagus putrescentiae (21.2%), two-spotted spider mite (16.6%), Dermatophagoides farinae (16.3%), D pteronyssinus (14.4%), cockroach (13.1%), and Hop Japanese ( Humulus Japonicus ) pollen (12.0%). Positive skin responses (mean wheal size ≥3 mm) to one or more of 13 inhalant allergens were found in 48.2% of farmers tested, whereas 40 subjects (8.6%) had an isolated skin response to the spider mites. Among 119 farmers with work-related asthmatic symptoms, the positive skin response rates to European red mite and two-spotted spider mite were 40.4% and 27.0%, respectively. These figures were significantly higher than those found among farmers without work-related symptoms (19.1% and 14.1%, respectively; P < .01). The prevalence of work-related asthma symptoms was higher in farmers with positive skin responses to spider mites than in those with negative skin responses to spider mites and those with positive skin responses to any allergen tested (31.4% vs 15.0% vs 21.0%, respectively; P < .05). Conclusion: Spider mites, particularly European red mite and 2-spotted spider mite, are common sensitizing allergens in apple-cultivating farmers. These spider mites may be important causative allergens in the development of work-related respiratory symptoms in these workers. (J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999;1285-92.)

Occurrence and Control of Weeds in Direct-seeded Rice Paddy in Korea.

The planted area of direct-seeding rice cultivation in Korea, which began in 1991, increased remarkably up to 117, 500 ha in 1995, but decreased to 63, 900 ha in 1998 and then rose to 71, 700 ha in 1999. Farmers preferred dry paddies to flooded paddies at first for direct-seeding, but in recent years this has changed due to frequent rainfalls at seeding time. The number of weed species occurring in paddy fields in Korea was 23 in direct seeding on dry paddy and 18 in direct-seeding on flooded paddy. Echinochloa crus-galli was the most dominant weed species in direct-seeding on dry paddy and was followed by Cyperus difformis, Cyperus serotinus, Ludwigia prostrata and Aneilema japonica. The dominant weed species in direct-seeding on flooded paddy were Echinochloa crusgalli, Eleocharis kuroguwai, Scirpus hotarui, Monochoria vaginalis and cyperus difformis. On the contrary, Eleocharis kuroguwai, Sagittaria pygmaea, Sagittaria trifolia, Echinochloa crus-galli and Monochoria vaginalis were dominant weeds in machine transplanted paddy fields. Occurrence of weedy rice, especially red rice, was also increased greatly in directly-seeded rice fields, although effective herbicides or other practical control methods are not yet developed. The recommended herbicide application for controlling weeds in direct seeded dry paddies and flooded paddies in Korea is the systemic application of two time points: before and after water logging, in case of medium weed occurrence. Additional application is recommended for heavy weed occurrence. It seems that direct seeding is one of the most attractive rice cultivation techniques for labor and cost saving. However, it is still an unstable technique because of poor seedling establishment, more occurrence of weedy rice, lodging problem and lack of satisfactory seeding machines. Direct-seeding rice cultivation is expected to increase in future by farmers in Korea who understand the technique better.

S-1 Occurrence and Control of Weeds in Direct-seeded Rice Paddy in Korea

The planted area of direct-seeding rice cultivation in Korea, which began in 1991, increased remarkably up to 117, 500 ha in 1995, but decreased to 63, 900 ha in 1998 and then rose to 71, 700 ha in 1999. Farmers preferred dry paddies to flooded paddies at first for direct-seeding, but in recent years this has changed due to frequent rainfalls at seeding time. The number of weed species occurring in paddy fields in Korea was 23 in direct seeding on dry paddy and 18 in direct-seeding on flooded paddy. Echinochloa crus-galli was the most dominant weed species in direct-seeding on dry paddy and was followed by Cyperus difformis, Cyperus serotinus, Ludwigia prostrata and Aneilema japonica. The dominant weed species in direct-seeding on flooded paddy were Echinochloa crusgalli, Eleocharis kuroguwai, Scirpus hotarui, Monochoria vaginalis and cyperus difformis. On the contrary, Eleocharis kuroguwai, Sagittaria pygmaea, Sagittaria trifolia, Echinochloa crus-galli and Monochoria vaginalis were dominant weeds in machine transplanted paddy fields. Occurrence of weedy rice, especially red rice, was also increased greatly in directly-seeded rice fields, although effective herbicides or other practical control methods are not yet developed. The recommended herbicide application for controlling weeds in direct seeded dry paddies and flooded paddies in Korea is the systemic application of two time points: before and after water logging, in case of medium weed occurrence. Additional application is recommended for heavy weed occurrence. It seems that direct seeding is one of the most attractive rice cultivation techniques for labor and cost saving. However, it is still an unstable technique because of poor seedling establishment, more occurrence of weedy rice, lodging problem and lack of satisfactory seeding machines. Direct-seeding rice cultivation is expected to increase in future by farmers in Korea who understand the technique better.

Fertilizer Policy in Korea

Farmers in Korea are often thought to be assisted by current fertilizer policy, since the government sells fertilizer to them at roughly 20 per cent below cost. However, this farm price is about 20 to 30 per cent above the international price. That is, fertilizer manufacturers are enjoying a nominal rate of protec­tion of more than 50 per cent. The fertilizer subsidy is really a mechanism by which taxpayers help farmers bear the direct cost of that protection. It involves large government outlays though, which the government would like to phase out. One option is to remove the subsidy which would force farmers to carry the full direct cost of that protection. Another option is to lower the rate of protection to fertilizer manufacturers. This paper provides estimates of the price changes required to eliminate government outlays under these alternative circumstances. It also quantifies the effects of such changes on fertilizer production and us< and discusses the appropriateness of each op­tion in terms of efficiency of resource allocation, food security and farm in­comes.