Farm Bill Research Articles

Prescription for Change: Health Care Professionals and Advocacy for Farm Bill Reform

Prescription for Change: Health Care Professionals and Advocacy for Farm Bill Reform

Sizing Up the Farm Bill Safety Net

Lower commodity prices and higher production costs over the past couple of years have crop producers concerned about tighter margins and cash flow for their operations. The federal farm income safety net provides substantial support to producers through commodity programs, crop insurance programs, and disaster assistance. Crop insurance has been the primary safety net tool for producers in recent years as commodity prices generally fluctuated at levels above commodity program support levels. Even declining markets in the past couple years left prices that remained above Price Loss Coverage (PLC) support levels and revenue calculations above Agriculture Risk Coverage (ARC) guarantees unless there were significant yield losses at the county level for ARC-CO or the individual farm level for ARC-IC. The outlook is changing however as declining prices run into support levels that are increasing based on the past few years of higher prices. The ARC program provides a revenue guarantee tied to 86% of a benchmark revenue calculated from a five-year moving average price and a five-year moving average trend-adjusted yield. The PLC program provides support if prices fall below the higher of a legislated reference price or 85% of a five-year moving average price. With the higher prices experienced during the past few years, the five-year moving average price has increased and both ARC and PLC support levels have gotten stronger. A look at ARC and PLC protection and payment levels provides a picture of what current support and cash flow may look like and what future support could be under current or future farm legislation.

High-throughput LC-PDA method for determination of Δ9-THC and related cannabinoids in Cannabis sativa

Before the passage of the Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018, more commonly referred to as the 2018 Farm Bill, forensic laboratories were only required to perform qualitative measurements to confirm the identity of seized plant samples as Cannabis sativa (hemp or marijuana). The new law defines hemp at a federal level as Cannabis sativa containing 0.3 % or less Δ9-THC. Because forensic laboratories were not adequately equipped with the proper methods or training to meet these requirements, significant backlogs in casework resulted. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) responded by providing analytical tools to the forensic community. An accurate and precise method was previously developed to determine Δ9-THC, Δ9-THCA, and total Δ9-THC in botanical samples based on liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection (LC-PDA). Cannabis plant samples were ground and extracted with methanol using routine laboratory equipment. The original sample preparation procedure was time-consuming, taking over 70 min. The method described here has been optimized with the time required for sample preparation and LC-PDA analysis has been reduced to less than 30 min.

Effect of cannabidiol and hemp extract on viability and function of hepatocytes derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells

Since the passage of the 2018 Agriculture Improvement Act (2018 Farm Bill), the number of products containing cannabis-derived compounds available to consumers have rapidly increased. Potential effects on liver function as a result from consumption of products containing cannabidiol (CBD), including hemp extracts, have been observed but the mechanisms for the effects are not fully understood. In this study, hepatocytes derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) were used to evaluate potential hepatic effects of CBD and hemp extract at exposure concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 30 μM. Despite that a significant reduction in cell viability occurred only in the 30 μM group for both CBD and hemp extract, significant changes to cytochrome P450 activity, mitochondrial membrane potential, and lipid accumulation occurred within the concentration range of 0.1–3 μM for both CBD and hemp extract. Albumin and urea production, caspase 3/7 activity, and intracellular glutathione were significantly affected within the concentration range of 3–30 μM by CBD or hemp extract. These findings indicate that CBD and hemp extract can alter hepatic function and metabolism. The current study contributes data to help inform the evaluation of potential hepatotoxic effects of products containing cannabis-derived compounds.

Identification of Marijuana Using Silver-Phosphine Ion Complexation and a Semi-Quantitative 1% Decision-Point Assay

Due to the strict federal regulations concerning ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (∆9-THC) content for the differentiation of hemp and marijuana outlined in the 2018 Farm Bill, the ability to quickly and reliably differentiate cannabis as marijuana or hemp is crucial within both the seized drug community and hemp industry. This study provides a novel direct mass spectrometry approach for the identification of marijuana using Ag-phosphine ion complexation and a semi-quantitative 1% decision-point assay. The main constituents of hemp and marijuana, cannabidiol (CBD) and ∆9-THC, are isomeric and cannot be differentiated using soft ionization mass spectrometry techniques alone. However, the incorporation of [Ag(PPh3)(OTf)]2 enables the formation of unique MS/MS product ions at m/z 421/423, m/z 353/355, and m/z 231 for CBD due to differences in binding affinity, allowing CBD to be differentiated from ∆9-THC. Likewise, the isomeric cannabinoid precursors ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (∆9-THCA) and cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) can be differentiated due to the formation of unique MS/MS product ions at m/z 465/467 and m/z 379/381, which are specific to CBDA. Eight additional cannabinoids were also characterized utilizing the proposed Ag-phosphine ion complexation approach. To reduce the potential for false positives, a more conservative 1% decision-point assay was developed by fortifying 1% weight-by-volume ∆9-THC-d9 into methanolic extracts of authentic cannabis plant material, followed by assessing if the total ∆9-THC content (containing ∆9-THC and ∆9-THCA) was greater than or less than the intensity of the spiked internal standard. When the developed approach was applied to 20 methanolic extracts of authentic cannabis samples with known cannabinoid compositions, 90% of the samples were correctly identified as marijuana or not marijuana based on the 1% administrative threshold for the total ∆9-THC content. The two lone misidentifications were due to the presence of elevated ∆8-THC, which highlights the necessity to explore more selective ligands in the future. This study provides the first application of Ag-ligand ion complexation for the identification of marijuana based on a semi-quantitative 1% decision-point assay, which shows great promise as an alternative method for the rapid identification of marijuana.

Utilizing FSA conservation loan programs to support farm conservation activities

PurposeThe Farm Service Agency (FSA) conservation loan program was introduced in the 2008 Farm Bill to provide additional credit to assist producers implementing approved Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) conservation projects. This paper explores why this program has been widely underutilized despite an overall increase in United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Conservation Program participation.Design/methodology/approachThe FSA administrative loan data are merged with NRCS program participation and payments data for 2010–2021. The share of project costs paid by producers and resulting savings achieved by farmers participating in both programs if their cost-share portion was paid by FSA loans are estimated, as well as the impact on farmer conservation spending under different estimates of increased participation.FindingsA significant share of FSA farmers are likely to take advantage of NRCS programs, with the majority of participants paying under $25,000 in cost-share portions. These loans are less suited to guaranteed conservation loans and more appropriate for the discontinued direct conservation loan program. Few FSA borrowers participating in NRCS cost-share programs pay more than $50,000 in cost-share portions. These loans would receive the majority of benefits from interest reduction schemes under the current guaranteed loan program.Practical implicationsOur results and suggestions provide valuable information when discussing the Guaranteed Conservation Loan Program in the 2023 Farm Bill legislation.Originality/valueNo prior research has attempted to merge FSA guaranteed or direct loan data with conservation program participation and payment data, focused on producer cost-share levels or the FSA Guaranteed Conservation Loan Program in the last decade, making this study a valuable contribution to the literature.

Evaluation of alternative farm safety net program combination strategies

PurposeSeveral farm safety net strategies are available to farmers as a source of financial protection against losses due to price instability, government policies, weather fluctuations and global market changes. Producers can employ these strategies combining crop insurance policies with countercyclical policies for several crops and production areas; however, less is known about the efficiency of these strategies in enhancing profit and reducing its variability. In this study, we examine the efficiency of these strategies at minimizing inter crop year farm profit variability.Design/methodology/approachWe utilized relative mean of profit and coefficient of variation, to compare counterfactually calculated farm safety net strategies for a sample of 28,615 observations across 2,486 farms and four dryland crops (corn, soybean, sorghum and wheat) in Kansas spanning nine crop years (2014–2022). A no farm safety net strategy is used as the benchmark for every alternative strategy to ascertain whether a policy customization is statistically different from a no farm safety case.FindingsThe general pattern of the results suggests that program combination strategies that have a high-profit enhancement potential necessarily have low profit risk for dryland wheat and sorghum production. On the contrary, such a connection is absent for dryland corn and soybeans production. Low-cost farm safety net strategies that enhance corn and soybeans profits do not necessarily lower profit risks.Originality/valueThis paper is one of the first to use a large sample of actual farm-level observations to evaluate how combinations of safety net programs offered under the Title I (PLC, ARCCO and ARCIC) and XI (FCIP) of the U.S. Farm Bill rank in terms of profit level enhancement and profit risk reduction.

Availability and Characteristics of Hemp-Derived Psychoactive Cannabis Products: A Pilot Study in Cleveland, Ohio

Background: Hemp-derived psychoactive cannabis products (HDPCPs), such as delta-8 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), emerged onto the market as an alternative to cannabis following the 2018 US Farm Bill which legalized hemp. Research on HDPCPs remains limited. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the availability, placement, and consumption modality of HDPCPs as well as to identify potential defining characteristics of consumers. Methods: Between October 2022 and January 2023, researchers visited a random sample of 82 tobacco retailers in Cleveland, Ohio, to evaluate the availability of HDPCPs marketed as delta THC (eg, delta-8 or delta-10). Information was captured on where the HDPCPs were placed (eg, behind the counter, on the counter, by candy, or elsewhere) as well as the consumption modality (eg, edible or inhaled). Among retailers who stocked these products, clerks were asked who typically buys these products and how often they are purchased. Results: Over two-fifths (41.5%) of retailers carried HDPCPs. Most retailers (97.1%) carried delta THC products behind the counter and carried products as inhaled (82.4%), edible (70.6%). More than half of retailers (55.9%) carried both inhaled and edible forms of HDPCP. Retail clerks reported on a range of ages of consumers from younger to older or “everyone.” Conclusion: Hemp-derived psychoactive cannabis products are prevalent in this pilot study sample. These findings necessitate additional research to better quantify the population health impact of these products to determine if regulatory action may be necessary to protect public health.

Intoxicating Cannabis Products in Vape Shops: United States, 2023

IntroductionSince 2020, many types of intoxicating cannabis products (ICPs) have entered the US market. Hemp-derived ICPs including hexahydrocannabinol (HHC) and delta-8 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) pose concerns regarding their youth-oriented marketing, potency, and health effects. Some states have attempted to ban, restrict, or regulate their sale. However, the effectiveness of these laws and their enforcement is unclear. The current study provides insights into the retail landscape of ICPs sold across the US. MethodsIn November-December 2023, researchers systematically identified, called, and completed brief surveys with 520 US vape shops: (n=10 per state, n=10 in D.C., n=10 in Puerto Rico). The survey assessed the availability of 6 commonly-sold ICPs. Data were analyzed by regulatory context. Analyses were conducted in 2024. Results74% of vape shops sold any ICPs. ICPs were sold in 43% of shops in states with delta-8 THC bans, 53% in states with substantial regulations (intended to support safe use), 90% in states with significant restrictions (intended to limit potency/availability), and 92% in states with limited/no regulations. ICPs were sold in vape shops in each state except Washington and Alaska, both of which banned hemp-derived ICPs and had active retail of legalized non-medical cannabis. ConclusionsTaking licensed dispensaries into consideration, ICPs can be purchased in retail stores located in all 50 states, Washington DC, and Puerto Rico. ICPs are widely available in vape shops, even in most states with relevant bans/restrictions. Enhanced laws, surveillance, and enforcement are needed. The 2024 Farm Bill and state laws should explicitly prohibit hemp-derived ICPs.

Addressing Food Insecurity: Why A Comprehensive Farm Bill Is Essential for Rural Communities

Addressing Food Insecurity: Why A Comprehensive Farm Bill Is Essential for Rural Communities

THC Content on a Dry Weight Basis: Implications for Hemp Legality.

The 2018 Farm Bill defines hemp as Cannabis sativa L. with a tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentration not more than 0.3% on a dry weight basis where THC is implied to be total THC (THCTotal) including both acid (Δ9-THCA) and neutral (Δ9-THC) forms. Effect of temperature and mass were studied to determine the quickest time to prepare fresh hemp suitable for grinding without affecting THCTotal. Proficiency testing program data were also analyzed to compare THCTotal contents on a dry versus wet weight basis. Fresh hemp of 150 and 400 g were freeze-dried or heat-treated at 50 °C, 60 °C, and 70 °C for various lengths of time up to 72 hours. Ground hemp was analyzed for moisture content via AOAC 934.01 and THCTotal via liquid chromatography/mass spectrometer (LC/MS) or gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC/FID). A data set analyzed from a proficiency testing program included moisture and THCTotal from 20 to 67 laboratories on 12 analytical samples circulated from 2020 through 2022. The quickest drying time of 24 h occurred at 70 °C with 150 g. These conditions did not affect THCTotal content on a dry weight basis. Twelve proficiency testing program analytical samples ranged from 5.8 to 11.4% moisture and 0.144 to 0.399% THCTotal on a wet weight basis. An increase in reported THCTotal on a dry weight basis compared to a wet weight basis ranged from 0.002 to 0.027% with a significant difference occurring in only one analytical sample. Suitable condition for drying hemp without altering THCTotal content was 24 h at 70 °C. Determining residual moisture in oven-dried ground hemp to calculate THCTotal content on a dry weight basis provides no benefit given minimal difference between contents on dry versus wet weight bases, interlaboratory variability, and terpene volatilization.

Online Retail of Derived Psychoactive Cannabis Products: Age and Shipping Restrictions

PurposeThe 2018 US Farm Bill's definition of hemp resulted in the proliferation of derived psychoactive cannabis products (DPCPs), which appeal to some youth. Despite the importance of restricting youth access, few studies have systematically examined the DPCP retail environment, particularly their online accessibility. MethodsIn May 2023, Google incognito mode was used to search "buy delta thc." Among the first 100 results, data were collected from the 20 most trafficked websites that sold and delivered DPCPs. For each site, we documented the following policy-relevant information: 1) age verification measures for site entry and purchase attempts, 2) adult signature reportedly required upon delivery, and 3) shipping restrictions. ResultsOverall, 14 websites (70%) required individuals to indicate their age. Most websites (n = 13, 65%) did not verify age at attempted purchase, nor indicated that an adult signature was required upon delivery (n = 15, 75%). Only three websites (15%) had rigorous age verification procedures during checkout that included contact information as well as an image of their photo ID, which would then be validated through a third-party software. None required age verification upon both purchase and delivery. Thirteen websites (65%) mentioned state shipping restrictions; four of these provided conflicting information across different sections of the website. DiscussionAs the e-commerce landscape continues to evolve, clearer regulations regarding DPCP online retail sales and related enforcement are needed. In particular, measures are needed to enforce shipping restrictions and prevent youth access, including increasing the rigor of age verification.

HPLC Method for Better Separation of THC Isomers to Ensure Safety and Compliance in the Hemp Market.

The 2018 Farm Bill dictates that delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) concentrations must not exceed 0.3% in hemp and hemp-derived products in order to be "compliant." This narrow margin of error necessitates very precise testing methods throughout every facet of the hemp industry. Though gas chromatography has become the industry's gold standard, many hemp laboratories still use high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to quantify cannabinoids, and thus there exists a need for HPLC methods that can separate delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC) and Δ9-THC-a notoriously difficult task. This article details one such method, while simultaneously acknowledging the inevitable limits of using HPLC to separate cannabinoids. The method was also used to test Δ8-THC samples that were marketed as compliant, and it was found that all of the samples contained well over 0.3% Δ9-THC. The use of refined testing methodologies is crucial for hemp companies to ensure compliance, prevent adverse health effects, and provide consumers with accurate cannabinoid profiles of the products that they purchase.

Differentiation of Δ9-THC and CBD Using Silver-Ligand Ion Complexation and Electrospray Ionization Tandem Mass Spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS).

The 2018 Farm Bill defines marijuana as Cannabis sativa L. or any derivative thereof that contains greater than 0.3% Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) on a dry weight basis. The main cannabinoids present in Cannabis sativa L., Δ9-THC and cannabidiol (CBD), are structural isomers that cannot be differentiated using direct mass spectrometry with soft ionization techniques alone. Due to the classification of marijuana as a Schedule I controlled substance, the differentiation of Δ9-THC and CBD is crucial within the seized drug community. This study explores the use of Ag-ligand ion complexation and electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) for the differentiation of Δ9-THC and CBD using six different Ag complexes. Differences between the binding affinities of Δ9-THC and CBD for [Ag(PPh3)(OTf)]2 lead to the formation of unique product ions at m/z 421/423, m/z 353/355, and m/z 231 for CBD, enabling the differentiation of CBD from Δ9-THC. When applied to the analysis of known Δ9-THC:CBD mixture ratios, the developed [Ag(PPh3)(OTf)]2 ion complexation method was able to differentiate Δ9-THC-rich and CBD-rich samples based on the average abundance of the product ions at m/z 421/423. The developed approach was then applied to methanolic extracts of 20 authentic cannabis samples with known Δ9-THC and CBD compositions, resulting in a 95% correct classification rate. Even though the developed Ag-ligand ion complexation method was only demonstrated for the qualitative differentiation of Δ9-THC-rich and CBD-rich cannabis, this study establishes a foundation for the use of Ag-ligand ion complexation that is essential for future quantitative approaches.

U.S. food policy to address diet-related chronic disease.

Poor diet is the leading cause of mortality in the U.S. due to the direct relationship with diet-related chronic diseases, disproportionally affects underserved communities, and exacerbates health disparities. Evidence-based policy solutions are greatly needed to foster an equitable and climate-smart food system that improves health, nutrition and reduces chronic disease healthcare costs. To directly address epidemic levels of U.S. diet-related chronic diseases and nutritional health disparities, we conducted a policy analysis, prioritized policy options and implementation strategies, and issued final recommendations for bipartisan consideration in the 2023-24 Farm Bill Reauthorization. Actional recommendations include: sugar-sweetened beverage taxation, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) fruit and vegetable subsidy expansion, replacement of ultra-processed foods (UPF) with sustainable, diverse, climate-smart agriculture and food purchasing options, and implementing "food is medicine."

U.S. Federal Nutrition Policy and the Legal Geographies of Precision Welfare

Produce prescriptions are nutrition incentive programs that focus on specific populations diagnosed with chronic diseases. Since 2010 these programs have multiplied across the United States, with much of this growth attributed to expanded federal funding in the 2014 and 2018 Farm Bills. Framed as both “commonsense” solutions and a novel approach to food access and public health, they have been institutionalized within the Gus Schumacher Nutrition Incentive Program. Although framed as novel, prescriptions and dietary interventions are not new areas within nutrition policy. This article brings nutrition policy into the realm of legal geographic inquiry to examine how recent federal appropriations relate to not only social anxieties over diet and nutrition, but historical and contemporary concerns over public use of, and government spending on, federal benefit programs for targeted populations. This examination expands legal geographies literature through discussions of the “body” within law and how federal power comes to govern specific contexts. It argues we are seeing a new enclosure of federal benefits through the precision welfare of targeting individual bodies and their metabolic functions.

Farm bills in the parliament: impact of farmers protest and the democratisation of legislative process in India

ABSTRACT This research article analyses the impact of the farmers’ agitation on the legislative process in India. The Indian farmers’ protest against the 2020 Indian Agriculture Reform Acts, dubbed as ‘Kala Kanoon’ (black laws), not only voiced dissatisfaction with the contents of the farm bills but also confronted the undemocratic legislative practices. We provide descriptive evidence by discussing five major dimensions of the impact of the protest and the outcome i.e. the repeal of the laws. First, the protest movement and the resultant repeal helped discern a valuable public policy lesson to abandon top-down policy-making. Second, the protest questioned the bureaucratic approach to legislation that excluded the primary stakeholder group from policy-making. Third, it revealed the diminished role of the legislature and the concentration of power in the executive. Fourth, it exposed vulnerabilities in the parliamentary system when the ruling party holds a brute majority. Fifth, the protest emphasized the importance of state autonomy and legislative accountability to hold the executive accountable. We conclude with the summation of the major arguments from the discussion by highlighting the implications of the farmers’ movement for India’s future legislative processes.

Agrarian Reforms, Modes of Production and Farm Bills 2020 in Punjab

Agrarian Reforms, Modes of Production and Farm Bills 2020 in Punjab

Interlaboratory validation and one-year retrospective review of hemp and marijuana decision-point assays

After the passage of the Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018 (Farm Bill) that defined hemp as Cannabis sativa L. if it contained ≤0.3 % Δ9-THC on a dry weight basis, forensic laboratories were faced with the challenge of distinguishing marijuana from hemp in seized drug samples. This study reports the results of an interlaboratory validation of a previously developed qualitative decision-point assay for the differentiation of illegal marijuana from legal hemp, utilizing gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) with a 1 % Δ9-THC threshold. The method was validated in terms of selectivity, linearity, carryover, precision, accuracy, extract stability, dilution integrity, and measurement uncertainty. Other elements such as decarboxylation rate and potential for CBD interference were also evaluated. Specificity and positive predictive value were both 100 % using known cannabis reference materials. A total of 8 false negative results were observed among the 280 analyses, resulting in an overall assay sensitivity of 94 % and a negative predictive value of 95 %. The small number of false negative results near the 1 % threshold were attributed to decarboxylation inefficiency in some laboratories. While qualitative in nature, the measurement uncertainty of the assay at the 0.3 % Δ9-THC cutoff (legal threshold) using a 95.45 % confidence interval (k = 2) ranged from 12.2 % to 21.8 % among laboratories (equivalent to 0.3 % ± 0.04 % to 0.07 % Δ9-THC by weight). A one-year retrospective study across three agencies and fifteen laboratories was undertaken. Among the three agencies participating in the original study, 93–96 % of all suspected cannabis seizures yielded results above the administrative threshold of 1 % Δ9-THC (n = 3,288). The interlaboratory method development highlighted differences in performance between sites, ultimately improving the overall robustness of the method. Observations highlight the need for site-specific validation and vigilance. While multi-agency collaborations and interlaboratory validations are valuable, they do not replace the necessity for full, independent, and rigorous validation.

Patterns of delta 8 THC and cannabis uptake in Nebraska: A cannabis prohibition state

BackgroundFollowing the passage of the 2018 Farm Bill, derived psychoactive cannabis products containing delta 8 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) have become increasingly popular across the US, particularly in states that lack medical or recreational cannabis programs. Despite this, little is known about patterns of delta 8 THC use. MethodsA sample of Nebraska residents (a state without legal medical or recreational cannabis) were surveyed to gather data on substance use, including delta 8 THC and cannabis, across the state. Then, logistic regressions were used to calculate relative odds ratios to understand the factors that increased the likelihood at which Nebraska residents use delta 8 THC or cannabis products. ResultsAnalysis revealed that younger adults have higher odds of delta 8 THC use but not cannabis and that non-white participants had higher odds of delta 8 use than white non-Hispanic groups but there was no difference for cannabis use. Political affiliation, sexual orientation, access, and knowledge of friends who used cannabis were also associated with cannabis use but not delta 8 THC use. Past substance use and personal opinion regarding cannabis use increased likelihood for both delta 8 THC and cannabis use. ConclusionThese results illuminate several factors which affect cannabis and delta 8 THC use while providing insight on the people that are most likely to be impacted by the potential consequences of substance use, especially when considering the inconsistent laws governing cannabis and delta 8 THC use across the US.