Family Structure Research Articles

Labour market impacts of the China shock: Why the tide of Globalisation did not lift all boats

The 1990s and 2000s saw a dramatic expansion in global goods trade. China rapidly emerged as the world's leading exporter while manufacturing employment in many high-income countries plummeted. Guided by textbook models that assumed frictionless labour markets and balanced trade, economists long maintained the view that trade had only modest labour market impacts and was not an important contributor to rising inequalities in high-income countries. We review recent evidence on the impacts of rapidly rising import competition from China on a broad range of outcomes in high-income countries. Import competition led to employment and wage losses that were heavily concentrated among the employees of exposed industries and individuals residing in local labour markets where such industries clustered, while consumer gains from lower goods prices were much more evenly distributed in the population. The disruptive effects of trade were particularly salient in countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom where a rapid growth of imports did not coincide with a commensurate expansion of own exports. Local labour markets facing greater import competition also experienced deteriorations in terms of health outcomes, crime, and family structures, and they became more likely to support far right politicians. We discuss several policy options to support the losers from globalisation.

Interpersonal determinants of diet quality and eating behaviors in people aged 13-30 years: A systematic scoping review.

Adolescence is an important period of increasing independence, when adolescents experience changing influences of family and friends on their diets as they transition into adulthood. We conducted a scoping review to map the literature on interpersonal determinants of diet quality and eating behaviors among individuals aged 13-30 years. We searched seven literature databases, and following screening, 329 papers were included. Determinants were grouped according to sub-categories of the Determinants of Nutrition and Eating framework: family structure (n = 122), social influences (n = 121), parental behaviors (n = 90), family food culture (n = 83), social support (n = 69), parental feeding styles (n = 24), parental attitudes/beliefs (n = 8), and parental resources/risk factors (n = 6), and we added two new sub-categories: parenting style (n = 74) and partner behaviors (n = 6). Fruit/vegetable (n = 143) and sugar-sweetened beverage (n = 102) intake were the most commonly measured diet outcomes, and breakfast consumption (n = 41) and fast food/takeaway intake (n = 39) the most commonly examined eating behaviors. This review highlights the gaps in the literature, both across the determinant sub-categories and also the relative paucity of longitudinal evidence and lack of evidence in emerging adults, particularly outside of university settings. Future research should focus on these areas to provide stronger evidence to support better design of interventions for this age group.

Long-Term Change in BMI for Children with Obesity Treated in Family-Centered Lifestyle Interventions

Introduction: Several evaluations of lifestyle interventions for childhood obesity exist; however, follow-up beyond 2 years is necessary to validate the effect. The aim of the present study was to investigate long-term weight development following children participating in one of two pragmatic family-centered lifestyle interventions treating childhood obesity. Methods: This real-life observational study included Danish children 4–17 years of age classified as having obesity. Data from 2010 to 2020, from two community-based family-centered lifestyle interventions (designated hereafter as the Aarhus- and the Randers-intervention) were merged with national registers and routine health check-ups, including height and weight. Adjusted mixed effect models were used to model changes in body mass index (BMI) z score. We performed exploratory analyses of the development in BMI z-score within stratified subgroups of children treated in the interventions before investigating potential effect modifications induced by sex, age, family structure, socioeconomic, or immigration status. Results: With a median follow-up of 2.8 years (interquartile range: 1.3; 4.8), 703 children participated in an intervention (445 the Aarhus-intervention; 258 the Randers-intervention) and 2,337 children were not invited to participate (no-intervention). Children in both interventions experienced a comparable reduction in BMI z-scores during the first 6 months compared to the no-intervention group (Aarhus-intervention: −0.12 SD/year and Randers-intervention: −0.25 SD/year). Only children in the Randers-intervention reduced their BMI z-score throughout follow-up (Aarhus-intervention vs. no-intervention: 0.01 SD/year; confidence interval [CI]: −0.01; 0.04; Randers-intervention vs. no-intervention: −0.05 SD/year; CI: −0.08; −0.02). In subgroup comparisons, combining the two interventions, family income below the median (−0.05 SD/year, CI: −0.02; −0.09), immigrant background (0.04 SD/year, CI: 0.00; 0.07), or receiving intervention less than 1 year (0.04 SD/year, CI: 0.00; 0.08) were associated with a yearly increase in BMI z score. In addition, effect modification analyses did not observe any interaction by sex, age, family structure, socioeconomic, or immigration. Conclusions: Although the more dynamic intervention with longer duration obtained and sustained a minor reduction in BMI z score, the clinical impact may only be modest and still not effective enough to induce a long-term beneficial development in BMI in children with obesity.

Structure of Reef Fish Families (Butterflyfishes and Angelfishes) at Isolated Oceanic Reefs in the Indian Ocean: Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands

There has been substantial research on the factors that structure reef fish assemblages, but this has mostly focused on nearshore or continental reefs. This study examines patterns of abundance and species composition for two iconic groups of coral reef fishes, angelfishes (family Pomacanthidae) and butterflyfishes (family Chaetodontidae) at two isolated, oceanic reefs in the Indian Ocean: Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands. Six explanatory variables were investigated to determine whether large-scale physical factors are more important than fine-scale biotic factors in structuring reef fish communities on oceanic islands. For angelfishes, depth was the factor that most explained patterns in abundance (explaining 46.5% of the variation), species richness (44.8%) and composition (15.3%), with both abundance and species richness being greater at 20 m than at 5 m. Differences in species composition were greater between depths than between islands. For butterflyfishes, variation in abundance and species richness was best explained by the difference in aspect or exposure among sites, though abundance and composition also differed significantly between Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands. Large-scale variation in the structure of these reef fish assemblages could not be explained based on differences in habitat diversity, or coral and algal cover. This study indicates that large-scale physical factors (island location, exposure, depth) are more important than fine-scale biotic factors in structuring reef fish assemblages on oceanic islands.

The effect of family structure on the still-missing heritability and genomic prediction accuracy of type 2 diabetes

This study aims to assess the effect of familial structures on the still-missing heritability estimate and prediction accuracy of Type 2 Diabetes (T2D) using pedigree estimated risk values (ERV) and genomic ERV. We used 11,818 individuals (T2D cases: 2,210) with genotype (649,932 SNPs) and pedigree information from the ongoing periodic cohort study of the Iranian population project. We considered three different familial structure scenarios, including (i) all families, (ii) all families with ≥ 1 generation, and (iii) families with ≥ 1 generation in which both case and control individuals are presented. Comprehensive simulation strategies were implemented to quantify the difference between estimates of \\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\:{\ ext{h}}^{2}$$\\end{document} and \\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\:{\ ext{h}}_{\ ext{S}\ ext{N}\ ext{P}}^{2}$$\\end{document}. A proportion of still-missing heritability in T2D could be explained by overestimation of pedigree-based heritability due to the presence of families with individuals having only one of the two disease statuses. Our research findings underscore the significance of including families with only case/control individuals in cohort studies. The presence of such family structures (as observed in scenarios i and ii) contributes to a more accurate estimation of disease heritability, addressing the underestimation that was previously overlooked in prior research. However, when predicting disease risk, the absence of these families (as seen in scenario iii) can yield the highest prediction accuracy and the strongest correlation with Polygenic Risk Scores. Our findings represent the first evidence of the important contribution of familial structure for heritability estimations and genomic prediction studies in T2D.

Genome-wide identification of CaWD40 proteins reveals the involvement of a novel complex (CaAN1-CaDYT1-CaWD40-91) in anthocyanin biosynthesis and genic male sterility in Capsicum annuum

BackgroundThe WD40 domain, one of the most abundant in eukaryotic genomes, is widely involved in plant growth and development, secondary metabolic biosynthesis, and mediating responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. WD40 repeat (WD40) protein has been systematically studied in several model plants but has not been reported in the Capsicum annuum (pepper) genome.ResultsHerein, 269, 237, and 257 CaWD40 genes were identified in the Zunla, CM334, and Zhangshugang genomes, respectively. CaWD40 sequences from the Zunla genome were selected for subsequent analysis, including chromosomal localization, phylogenetic relationships, sequence characteristics, motif compositions, and expression profiling. CaWD40 proteins were unevenly distributed on 12 chromosomes, encompassing 19 tandem duplicate gene pairs. The 269 CaWD40s were divided into six main branches (A to F) with 17 different types of domain distribution. The CaWD40 gene family exhibited diverse expression patterns, and several genes were specifically expressed in flowers and seeds. Yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) and dual-luciferase assay indicated that CaWD40-91 could interact with CaAN1 and CaDYT1, suggesting its involvement in anthocyanin biosynthesis and male sterility in pepper.ConclusionsIn summary, we systematically characterized the phylogeny, classification, structure, and expression of the CaWD40 gene family in pepper. Our findings provide a valuable foundation for further functional investigations on WD40 genes in pepper.

Home Literacy Environment of Young Children in Xinjiang, China

This study used qualitative descriptive research methods in order to explore the home literacy environment (HLE) of young children within the Chinese sociocultural context, aiming to identify its key components. Thirty parents of children aged 3 to 6 residing in the capital city of Xinjiang, China, were purposefully sampled for this study. In-depth interviews were conducted to explore several key areas: the home physical literacy environment, parental beliefs and practices regarding literacy learning, specific parent-child literacy activities and interactions, and parental literacy habits. The results revealed that Chinese parents predominantly perceive literacy as the acquisition of reading and writing skills. They frequently engaged in informal activities that supported emergent literacy, often without fully recognising the benefits of these practices. Parents claimed a relatively rich resources that promoted language and literacy learning, and the quality of parent-child interactions was closely linked to family SES and adult’s responsiveness. Technology plays a significant role in the Home Literacy Environment (HLE), but its optimal use for promoting literacy is still not well understood, highlighting the need to incorporate digital aspects of HLE into future research. The study also uncovered distinctive family structures in China, where extended family members and neighbourhood peers contribute to children's HLE. Additionally, parents often grapple with academic pressures and a lack of knowledge about child development, which leads them to reinforce school practices while simultaneously questioning traditional methods. This study advocates for a broader framework of HLE in future research, particularly focusing on children under 6 years old.

Mosaic Database: Consolidation, Innovation, and Challenges in the Comparative Family Demography of Historical Europe

Abstract This paper looks at the progress that the Mosaic database has enabled in the study of family structures in continental Europe in the past. Our main argument is that the combination of comprehensive archival research, digitization and computation, data mining, and open-access dissemination that is at the core of the Mosaic project is bringing about an important shift in the fundamental principles that have driven European family history research to date. These transformative features of Mosaic go beyond mere data infrastructural developments, as scaling up to much larger datasets leads to qualitative differences in measurements, methods, and questions. Integrating these perspectives can lead to an important incremental shift in both the scale and the scope of knowledge about historical European family systems.

Residential Hollowing and Its Drivers in Traditional Chinese Villages: Case Study of Wentang Village, Anhui Province

This study investigates the vacancy of traditional dwellings in Wentang Village, Qimen County, Anhui Province, China, and explores the underlying mechanisms driving the phenomenon of hollowing out. Through field surveys, interviews, and data analysis, the study reveals that the vacancy rate of traditional dwellings in Wentang Village is as high as 73%, compared to a significantly lower rate of 18.4% for newly built houses. The findings indicate that the hollowing out of the village is driven by factors such as urbanization, shifts in agricultural production methods, and changes in family structures. The study concludes that residents have experienced a phased migration from traditional dwellings to newly built houses and subsequently to urban residences. This transition is accompanied by increasing connections between villages and cities, as well as a decline in agricultural activities, which is pushing rural labor towards non-agricultural employment.

Uptake of COVID-19 vaccinations amongst 3,433,483 children and young people across four nations in the UK

Background and ObjectivesSARS-CoV-2 infection in children and young people (CYP) can lead to life threatening conditions including COVID-19, transmission to more vulnerable individuals, or even long COVID. Vaccination against COVID-19 reduces the chance of infection and transmission of the virus, but vaccine uptake in the UK has been shown to decrease with age. ApproachWe undertook a multistate-model approach to estimate hazard ratios on national cohorts constructed from linked health and administrative data, adjusting for several demographic factors. The models were applied to 3,433,483 CYP aged 5-17 years between 4th August 2021 and 31st May 2022. The results were combined in a random effects meta-analysis. ResultsUptake of the first COVID-19 vaccine in CYP was lower compared to older age groups in the UK, and diminished further with subsequent doses (34%, 20% and 2% for 1st, 2nd, and booster dose respectively). Age of the CYP and vaccination status of the adults in the household were identified as important risk factors. For example, 5-11-year-olds were less likely to receive their first vaccine compared to 16-17-year-olds (adjusted Hazard Ratio [aHR]: 0.10 (95%CI: 0.06-0.19), and CYP in unvaccinated households were less likely to receive their first vaccine compared to partially vaccinated households (aHR: 0.19, 95%CI 0.13-0.29). Conclusions and Implications Our work highlights the need for targeted strategies to increase COVID-19 vaccine acceptance and uptake among CYP, especially considering the influence of parental consent and household factors. Further research could help identify risk factors in household types to investigate more direct associations, which may be influenced by factors such as living with vulnerable people, familial structure, or deprivation.

AD|ARC (Administrative Data Agri-Research Collection): Linking Individual, Household and Farm Business Data for Sociodemographic Research on Farming Households

ObjectiveTo understand the socio-demographic characteristics and structure of farming households in Wales who receive subsidies compared to non-farming rural households. Approach We utilised the AD|ARC dataset, a comprehensive resource we created within the SAIL databank by linking de-identified records of farms receiving farming subsidies in Wales with socio-demographic information from the Census 2011. A control group was created by matching each farming household with up to three households in the 2011 Census from a similar geographical area that did not contain a farmer or household member in receipt of farming subsidies. We used Census 2011 variables to compare household size, family structure and age for 18,135 farming households with a control group of 53,365 rural non-farming households. Results We found little difference between the age and gender distribution between cohorts, however we found significant differences in the household structure. Farming households had a larger average size compared to non-farming households. Single-occupancy farming households had a significantly higher proportion of males, farming households were more likely to have couples with children and a higher percentage of these couples were married compared to non-farming households. Implications The agriculture sector in Wales is facing a range of challenges linked to social, economic, and environmental sustainability as it establishes a new direction after UK withdrawal from the EU. Understanding the sociodemographic characteristics of farming communities is essential for developing effective policies and interventions that address the specific needs and challenges faced by these groups.

Synthesis and evaluation of novel sulfamethoxazole-containing 1,8-dioxo-decahydroacridine derivatives: Antimicrobial activity and emission properties

A straightforward and efficient method for synthesizing 1,8-dioxo-decahydroacridine derivatives is presented, utilizing a one-pot, three-component condensation reaction involving dimedone, sulfamethoxazole, and aromatic aldehydes. The primary objective of this synthesis is to incorporate the sulfamethoxazole ring into the acridine family structure and examine the antibacterial effects and fluorescence properties of the compounds. The antibacterial activity of the synthesized compounds was evaluated against various gram-positive and gram-negative microorganisms, as well as a fungal strain, using the disk diffusion method, minimum inhibitory concentration determination, and bactericidal assays. Notably, five compounds exhibited potent antibacterial activity against both strains of Bacillus cereus. Furthermore, the influence of pH on the fluorescence emission intensity and absorption spectrum of the synthesized compounds was investigated, revealing that all products displayed fluorescence radiation.

From Traditional-Aged Students to Teenage Fathers: A Qualitative Study of Social Challenges and Experiences of East Asian Second-Generation Teenage Fathers

This study aims to investigate East Asian second-generation teenage fathers’ stress and problems resulting from internal factors and external influences in the United States. The relationships between the changes in the teenage fathers’ family structures, social expectations, and experiences of educational and financial challenges during the pregnancy (of their partner) and into the period of their early fatherhood were examined. Based on the Interpretative phenomenological method, ten participants who had experienced stress and problems due to their characteristics as teenage fathers, particularly second-generation East Asian Americans, participated in this study. Three semi-structured interviews, one focus group activity, and one member-checking interview were used to collect in-depth lived stories. Three themes emerged: (1) Cultural characteristics: Detrimental perspectives from family members and the public, (2) Age: The hindrance of youth as a characteristic of teenage fathers, and (3) Career development: The challenges of earning a minimum salary and having an unforeseen career. The findings indicated that counseling services based on patients’ sociocultural backgrounds and practices should be considered to offer effective treatments to ethnic minorities, in this case, East Asian Americans. The results of this study can provide a map for public health researchers to use in refining sex education and sexual health promotion, and the approach can offer a blueprint for capturing the voices of other teenage parents.

Harmony Amidst Hyperactivity: Understanding How Parent-Teacher Relationships Influence Learning Behaviours in Children with ADHD

The current study investigated whether parent-teacher relationships mediated the relationship between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptomology and children’s learning behaviours. A sample of Canadian parents were asked to complete a questionnaire about their child and their parenting. Data collection occurred during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Spring 2021 (N = 321, Mgrade = 4.30, SDgrade = 2.98). Data were analyzed using a mediation model. Results indicated that increased ADHD symptomology was significantly associated with a heightened strain on parent-teacher relationships, which exacerbated challenges in children’s learning behaviours (b = -0.39, t(320) = -9.82, p < .001). Moreover, parent-teacher relationships partially mediated the relationship between ADHD symptomology and children’s learning behaviours (b = -8.95, t(320) = -18.13, p < .001). These findings emphasize the importance in addressing familial and educational support structures in managing the academic difficulties for youth experiencing ADHD symptomatology, and further educational achievement and opportunities.

Optimization Over Families of Quasi-Periodic Orbits

Quasi-periodic orbit families in astrodynamics are usually studied from a global standpoint without much attention to the specific orbits which are computed. Instead, we focus on the computation of particular quasi-periodic orbits and develop tools to do so. These tools leverage the parametric structure of families of quasi-periodic orbits to treat orbits only as a set of orbit frequencies instead of states in phase space. We develop a retraction on the family of quasi-periodic orbits to precisely navigate through frequency space, allowing us to compute orbits with specific frequencies. The retraction allows for movements in arbitrary directions. To combat the effects of resonances which slice through frequency space we develop resonance avoidance methods which detect resonances during continuation procedures and change the step size accordingly. We also develop an augmented Newton’s method for root-finding and an augmented gradient descent method for unconstrained optimization over a family of quasi-periodic orbits. Lastly, we implement an augmented Lagrangian method to solve constrained optimization problems. We note that many of the tools developed here are applicable to a wider range of solutions defined implicitly by a system of equations, but focus on quasi-periodic orbits.

Moderating effect of family structure on the relationship between early clinical exposure and emotional labor of nursing students: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundEmotional labor is an essential component of nursing practice and is important for Generation Z nursing students born from the mid-1990s to early 2010s. They will become the backbone of the nursing workforce but present more emotional regulation problems. Studies on emotional labor are limited to clinical nurses and influencing factors at the individual level. The impacts of external systems on emotional labor of nursing students have not been explored. This study aimed to quantify the relationship between early clinical exposure and emotional labor and test the moderating effect of family structure on the relationship.MethodsThe cross-sectional study recruited 467 nursing students using convenience sampling from seven colleges and universities in mainland China. An e-survey created on WJX.CN was used to collect data in January 2023. Emotional labor (surface acting and deep acting) was measured with the Emotional Labor scale. Early clinical exposure (exposure or not and times of exposure) and family structure (nuclear family, extended family, and single-parent family) were assessed with self-reported questions. Descriptive statistics and the linear mixed-effects modeling were used to do the analyses.ResultsThe mean scores of surface acting and deep acting were 26.66 ± 5.66 and 13.90 ± 2.40, respectively. A significant difference in scores of surface acting was not observed for exposure or not, whereas such a significant difference was found for times of exposure. Nursing students from extended families demonstrated significantly lower scores on surface acting while exposed to clinical practice compared with those from nuclear families. Family structure moderated the relationship between times of exposure and surface acting of nursing students when exposed to clinical practice for one time, but the significance disappeared when the times of exposure increased. No significant findings of early clinical exposure on deep acting were observed.ConclusionsEarly clinical exposure influenced emotional labor, and students from extended families were more likely to get benefits from early clinical exposure. Studies are needed to help students from nuclear families get comparable benefits on emotional labor as those from extended families, and improve deep acting by early clinical exposure.

Family Structure and Student Discipline in Public Boarding Secondary Schools in Western Region of Kenya

Discipline in schools is an issue that especially concerns educators, parents, and other stakeholders. In an environment that lacks order and discipline, it is impossible for students to learn effectively. Thus, order and discipline are indispensable for achieving positive educational results. The family assumes a pivotal role in shaping the early years of an individual. The purpose of this research was to examine the influence of family structure on student discipline in public boarding secondary schools in Western region of Kenya. Family composition and structural-functionalism theories served as guiding principles for the research. The investigation was conducted using an ex post facto design. The study's target population consisted of 5583 class teachers and 369 deputy principals (administrators-in-charge) from 369 public boarding secondary institutions. The sample included 123 deputy Principals and 558 class teachers from the 123 randomly selected schools. Simple random sampling was used to select 558 class teachers while purposive sampling was used to select 123 deputy Principals. For the purpose of data collection from the participants, a questionnaire and an interview schedule were employed. The assessment of the instruments' reliability was conducted using the test-retest method, results of the pilot study reveal that all scales were trustworthy because their reliability values were more than the required threshold of 0.7. Data was analyzed using frequency, percentages, weighted averages, correlations and multi-regression analysis. The study concluded that family structure influence the discipline of students in public secondary schools.

Applying Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model in Family Court

he work of Urie Bronfenbrenner is a key framework in Family Science, yet there are many areas where it has seldom been applied, including in the processes experienced by divorcing families in Family Court. Acknowledging the paucity of scholarship applying ecological systems theory to these topics, the paper offers instructive interpretations of personal practice experience in these roles. Described are two of several career roles in Family Court available to professionals trained in family science and how Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model of development is applicable in that work. Careers described are providing training and consultation for attorneys and judges and conducting custody evaluations. Bronfenbrenner’s model affords consistent and useful principles for both roles. The processes of separation and divorce are described as a series of ecological transitions that affect not only family structure, but the relationships that make up the family system, as well as family members’ participation in other ecosystems. Changes in relationships and ecosystems affect development by requiring individuals to adapt. Family Court itself is an ecosystem with roles, activities and macrosystem beliefs that are often stressful for family members and that may increase risks to family relationships and development. Discussion considers areas where Family Scientists can use Bronfenbrenner’s model to contribute to improved research and practice for divorcing families.

Demographic History and English Culture

In England, the period from the late Middle Ages through early modernity was bookended by demographic change. On one edge, there was the Black Death and subsequent plague pandemics, which halved the population, reshaping English society in their wake. On the other, there was the demographic transition of the mid-eighteenth century, which reduced death rates and led to modern family structures. Between these two epochal events, demographic trends shaped English customs and values, and were in turn shaped by them. The articles in this special issue draw on cutting-edge demographic research to offer new interpretations of the effects of plague, patterns of marriage, evolving forms of labor, and the morality of crime and charity, among other subjects. Together, they illustrate how quantitative studies in historical demography can shed light on key transformations in culture and society—and vice versa.

Assessing the parental SES gradient in young Britons' partnership expectations, attitudes and its potential mediators.

A well-documented trend in family demography is that young adults from disadvantaged backgrounds tend to enter their first partnership earlier and forego marriage more often than their advantaged counterparts. Yet, limited research has explored whether there is also an association between parental background and expectations for partnership formation, which are considered important precursors of behaviours. Further, few studies have explored the potential mechanisms mediating these differences. This paper uses data from the British Household Panel Survey and Understanding Society to analyse the relationships between parental socioeconomic status and young Britons' expectations for marriage, cohabitation, and attitudes towards ideal age at marriage. Using the KHB decomposition as a mediation method, we verify whether these relationships are explained by two mechanisms measured during the young adults' adolescence: family structure socialisation and academic socialisation. We find that marriage expectations are socially stratified in the UK. Those from the least advantaged backgrounds have significantly lower expectations for marriage than the most advantaged, but this difference does not hold for cohabitation. Those from the least advantaged backgrounds are also more uncertain about their ideal age at marriage. Academic socialisation mediates these relationships to a limited extent. Family structure socialisation mediates a greater percentage, especially living with a single parent, rather than married parents, during adolescence.