Family Dog Research Articles

How do soundboard-trained dogs respond to human button presses? An investigation into word comprehension.

Past research on interspecies communication has shown that animals can be trained to use Augmentative Interspecies Communication (AIC) devices, such as soundboards, to make simple requests of their caretakers. The recent uptake in AIC devices by hundreds of pet owners around the world offers a novel opportunity to investigate whether AIC is possible with owner-trained family dogs. To answer this question, we carried out two studies to test pet dogs' ability to recognise and respond appropriately to food-related, play-related, and outside-related words on their soundboards. One study was conducted by researchers, and the other by citizen scientists who followed the same procedure. Further, we investigated whether these behaviours depended on the identity of the person presenting the word (unfamiliar person or dog's owner) and the mode of its presentation (spoken or produced by a pressed button). We find that dogs produced contextually appropriate behaviours for both play-related and outside-related words regardless of the identity of the person producing them and the mode in which they were produced. Therefore, pet dogs can be successfully taught by their owners to associate words recorded onto soundboard buttons to their outcomes in the real world, and they respond appropriately to these words even when they are presented in the absence of any other cues, such as the owner's body language.

ASD-similar social behaviour scores affect stimulus generalization in family dogs

Generalization, the tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli, is one of the main cognitive abilities that make category formation possible and thus is a prerequisite for efficiency in learning. Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) experience pervasive difficulty with producing generalized responses across materials, people, places, and contexts. Increasing evidence suggests that “ASD-like” social impairments appear endogenously and spontaneously in family dogs providing a high-validity model for understanding the phenotypic expression of human ASD. The present study aims to further investigate the dog model of ASD by the approach of searching for analogues in dogs showing “ASD-like” social impairments of cognitive phenomena in humans specific to ASD, specifically impairments of generalization abilities. We have tested 18 family dogs with formerly established “ASD-like” behaviour scores (F1, F2, F3) in a generalization task involving three conditions (size, colour and texture). We found a significant association between F1 scores and test performance as well as improvement during testing sessions. Our study provides further support for the notion that dogs with lower social competence—similarly to humans with ASD—exhibit attentional and perceptual abnormalities, such as being sensitive to minor changes to a non-adaptive extent.

Towards an Objective Measurement Tool for ADHD-like Traits in Family Dogs: A Comprehensive Test Battery.

Family dogs exhibit neuropsychological deficits similar to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms in humans. Questionnaire methods have mostly been used to assess ADHD-like behaviours in dogs. In addition to our validated questionnaire (Dog ADHD and Functionality Rating Scale-DAFRS; 2024), we developed a simple behavioural test battery covering the ADHD symptom domains (i.e., inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity) in dogs. Our main aim was (i) to provide a final external validation step to the DAFRS by examining its associations with the test variables (N = 59); and (ii) to compare owner- and trainer-rated factor scores' associations with the test variables (n = 38). We developed four tests covering the ADHD symptom domains: the attention test (inattention), the plush dog test (impulsivity), the leash test, and the sit test (hyperactivity). All four behavioural variables correlated with their respective questionnaire scores, i.e., the strongest for hyperactivity, and the least strong for inattention. Both owner- and trainer-rated scores (n = 38) correlated with the relevant test variables in an expected direction. Dogs' training status was linked only to the sit test results. Test-retest analyses (n = 34) indicated moderate-to-excellent agreement across all behavioural variables. Our findings support the validity of our novel human-analogue questionnaire for dogs as the behavioural tests strongly correlate with the relevant questionnaire scores, indicating that the two constructs together can effectively assess inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity in dogs.

Success in the Natural Detection Task is influenced by only a few factors generally believed to affect dogs’ olfactory performance

Research into dogs' olfactory ability is growing rapidly. However, generalising based on scientific results is challenging, because research has been typically conducted on a few specially trained subjects of a few breeds tested in different environmental conditions. We investigated the effects of temperature and humidity (outdoors), age, test location, sex, neutering status, and repeated testing (outdoors and indoors) on the olfactory performance of untrained family dogs (N = 411) of various breeds. We employed the Natural Detection Task with three difficulty levels, from which we derived two performance metrics: Top Level and Success Score. Temperature (0–25 °C) and humidity (18–90%) did not affect olfactory performance. Young adult dogs surpassed other age groups in reaching the Top Level. Sex and neutering status showed no discernible influence on Top Level and Success Score. Dogs performed better in both metrics when tested indoors compared to outdoors. In the test–retest procedure no significant learning effect was observed. We confirmed on untrained companion dogs that olfactory performance declines with age and rejected some factors that have been previously hypothesised to significantly affect dogs’ olfactory success. The influence of the testing environment was notable, emphasising the need to consider various factors in understanding dogs' olfactory capabilities.

Potential interactive effect of positive expectancy violation and sleep on memory consolidation in dogs

In dogs, as in humans, both emotional and learning pretreatment affect subsequent behaviour and sleep. Although learning often occurs in an emotional-social context, the emotion-learning interplay in such context remain mainly unknown. Aims were to assess the effects of Controlling versus Permissive (emotional factors) training (learning factors) styles on dogs’ behaviour, learning performance, and sleep. Family dogs (N = 24) participated in two command learning sessions employing the two training styles with each session followed by assessment of learning performance, a 2-h-long non-invasive sleep EEG measurement, and a retest of learning performance. Pre- to post-sleep improvement in learning performance was evident in dogs that received the Permissive training during the second learning session, indicating that dogs that experienced a more rewarding situation than expected (positive expectancy violation) during the second training session showed improved learning success after their afternoon sleep. These results possibly indicate an interactive effect of expectancy violation and sleep on enhancing learning.

Unleashing potential: Boosting physical activity in children with developmental disabilities via a family-dog-assisted intervention

Abstract In the context of a global crisis, where over 80% of children fail to meet minimum standards of physical activity, children with developmental disabilities may face an even greater health disparity. Despite being disproportionately less physically active than the broader population, those with developmental disabilities are often excluded from mainstream interventions. This study evaluated a novel animal-assisted intervention (AAI) that incorporated the family pet dog, with the goal of increasing physical activity in children with developmental disabilities. The intervention involved teaching child participants to engage in “Do as I Do” (DAID) reciprocal-imitation training with their dog over ten 60-min sessions. After enrollment, 45 child-dog pairs of children and their family dogs were randomly assigned to either the experimental intervention (DAID) group, the active control group (dog walking control [DWC]), or the passive control group (waitlist control [WC]). Physical activity was measured using a 7-day ActiGraph accelerometer monitoring process, and data were analyzed for children who wore the accelerometer for a minimum of 4 days at both assessment time points (N = 14). Participation in the intervention (DAID) group was found to significantly increase moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) by 1.2 min/h ( p = 0.0087; Cohen’s d = 1.7) and significantly reduce sedentary behavior by 4.03 min/h ( p = 0.027; d = 1.3), outperforming the waitlist control group. Our findings demonstrate the potential of this novel dog-assisted intervention to improve physical activity in this population, thereby contributing to a reduction in health disparities.

Dogs' social susceptibility is differentially affected by various dog-Human interactions. A study on family dogs, former shelter dogs and therapy dogs.

When pre-treated with social stimuli prior to testing, dogs are more susceptible to human influence in a food preference task. This means, after a positive social interaction they are more willing to choose the smaller amount of food indicated by the human, as opposed to their baseline preference for the bigger amount. In the current study we investigate if and how various forms of social interaction modulate choices in the same social susceptibility task, testing dogs with varying early life history (pet dogs, therapy dogs, former shelter dogs). In line with previous studies, dogs in general were found to be susceptible to human influence as reflected in the reduced number of "bigger" choices in the human influence, compared to baseline, trials. This was true not only for pet dogs with a normal life history, but also for dogs adopted from a shelter. Therapy dogs, however, did not uniformly change their preference for the bigger quantity of food in the human influence trials; they only did so if prior to testing they had been pre-treated with social stimuli by their owner (but not by a stranger). Pet dogs were also more influenced after pre-treatment with social stimuli by their owner compared to ignoring and separation; however after pre-treatment by a stranger their behaviour did not differ from ignoring and separation. Former shelter dogs on the other hand were equally influenced regardless of pre-treatment by owner versus stranger. In summary these results show that dogs' social susceptibility is modulated by both interactions immediately preceding the test as well as by long term social experiences.

The face behind the caring voice: A comparative study on facial prosodic features of dog-, infant- and adult-directed communication

Although it has been known for over 40 years that people tend to adopt similar communication styles with both infants and dogs, the visual component of infant-directed speech (motherese) has been overlooked in research. The aim of the current study was to investigate variations in visual prosodic features across different addressees (i.e. dogs, infants, and adults) and the intended goal of communication. Parents who were also dog owners interacted with their infant (6–18 m.o.), their family dog and their spouses as adult-directed control in three different, 1–2-minute-long scenarios: language tutoring, attention-getting, and fixed sentences. We comparatively analysed speakers’ (N=46; 23 females, Mage= 34.41 years, SD=4.41) facial expressions (i.e., happy, surprised, neutral) and emotional states (valence, arousal) across scenarios and conditions using Noldus FaceReader software. Results revealed a significant interaction effect of condition and situation. As expected, visual prosody was the least intense in the dog-directed condition, with language tutoring showing the lowest intensity. Fixed sentences, with lexical content intended for infants (i.e. nursery rhyme), exhibited consistently the highest intensity. Interestingly, adult-directed prosody toward spouses resembled infant-directed prosody more than expected. In summary, our results highlight disparities in the interpretation of facial expressions in both con- and interspecies communication. Despite the study’s limitations, it emphasizes the importance of ongoing visual prosody characterisation, inviting further clarification and reconsideration of the dynamics between the visual and acoustic aspects of motherese and dog-directed talk as well as the role of bonding between interactants. These insights underscore the benefits of comparative cognition involving canines.

Lower Eyelid Laceration in Children: A Case Report

Introduction : Eyelid lacerations may be associated with serious ocular injury and are often accompanied by other ocular injuries. Most injuries occur in children. Eyelids have an important role in protecting the globe. Effective management of eyelid lacerations requires an understanding of the basic anatomical features of the eyelids.
 Case Illustration : A two-year-old boy was brought to our emergency department after getting scratched in the eyelid by the family dog. The patient has received first aid and a tetanus shot at another hospital. Eye examination shows a lower eyelid laceration on the right eye, extending from the medial downwards around 3 cm. Visual examination was central+, steady+, maintenance+, and eye movement was within normal limits. The patient was admitted to undergo eyelid repair in the operating room.
 Discussion : The first step in eyelid repair is wound irrigation and removal of foreign particles to avoid infection and inflammation, and primary repair of eyelids should be performed within 12 to 24 hours of the injury to reduce subsequent complications. The recommended method for best wound closure and healing is gently handling tissue edges, slight eversion, and using the smallest diameter sutures. A proper pre-operative assessment and surgical planning include evaluation of the thickness of the defect, the size, the location, and the involvement of canthus and lacrimal drainage. The goals are to provide adequate eye closure, preservation of tear film, maintenance of visual field, and aesthetics.
 Conclusion : A thorough knowledge of the eyelid anatomy and suture technique is important to successfully repair the defect while maintaining eyelid function.

Noninvasive EEG measurement of sleep in the family cat and comparison with the dog

Abstract We have successfully measured the sleep electroencephalogram (EEG) of 12 family cats during an afternoon nap using a completely noninvasive methodology originally developed and validated for family dogs. Extracting both macrostructural and spectral sleep variables from the acquired data, we: (1) provided a descriptive analysis of sleep structure in cats and the power spectral density (PSD) distribution considering 3 sleep stages—drowsiness, non-rapid eye movement (NREM), and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep; and (2) compared the results to those obtained in family dogs measured under the same conditions and using the same methodology. Importantly, our description of sleep structure and PSD distribution in cats proved to be comparable to those of earlier invasive studies, highlighting that appropriate noninvasive methodologies may provide a viable alternative to those that are invasive in some cases. While no macrostructural differences were found between the sleep of cats and dogs, and the characteristic PSDs were mostly similar across sleep stages within the 2 species, the high-frequency resolution comparison of PSD distributions revealed differences between the 2 species in all sleep stages (concerning the delta, theta, alpha, sigma, and beta bands in drowsiness and NREM sleep; and the delta, alpha, and sigma bands in REM sleep). Potential factors underlying these differences are discussed, including differences in circadian rhythms, sleep homeostatic regulation, experienced stress, or even differential attitudes toward owners—highlighting important links between sleep characteristics and often more complex neural and behavioral features.

Development of a human-analogue, 3-symptom domain Dog ADHD and Functionality Rating Scale (DAFRS)

The family dog, in its natural environment, exhibits neuropsychological deficits redolent of human psychiatric disorders, including behaviours that are similar to human attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms. Based on standard questionnaire methods in humans, we aimed to develop and validate a detailed, psychometrically improved tool to assess owner views on relevant dog behaviours. We modified available questionnaires by adding items that allow for separate analysis of impulsivity, and items on functional impairment. We collected data from 1168 owners for different validation steps of the new questionnaire and, similarly to assessment of humans where teachers also evaluate as an expert control, we collected data from dog trainers. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis revealed 3 factors: inattention (IA), hyperactivity (H) and impulsivity (I), corresponding to all three human symptom dimensions in dogs. Test–retest analyses showed excellent agreement between measurements for all factors. Similarly to findings with humans, trainer-owner rating comparisons showed fair (IA) to moderate (H, I) agreement. As in humans, greater ADHD scores were associated with greater functional impairment scores. We suggest that in dogs, similarly to humans, parallel examination of (extreme) ADHD and functional impairment scores could help distinguish diagnosable individuals, after further validation of the questionnaire using a relevant behaviour test.

Mateship with Animals: Writing Nonhuman Animals as Channels for Substitution and Expression

This paper reflects on my childhood fixation with nonhuman animals and considers my father’s relationship with the family dog as an example of a retreat to a traumatic wound. In my later work as a park ranger, I was confronted by the conditions by which certain nonhuman animals were categorised as those to be culled, or to be cared for. These memories, together with inspiration from Freud’s case studies, informed the writing of my second novel, Mateship with Birds. This novel is interested in what nonhuman animals might represent and where the divisions between nonhuman animal and human experience begin and end. I use psychoanalytic theory to draw attention to the role of nonhuman animals in formulating desire in the text and to explore how they are positioned to fill the gap between need and demand where human desire appears. I am aware that my writing about nonhuman animals does not reveal a great deal about nonhuman animals, but about myself. The nonhuman animals are portals through which I reclaim, reanimate and ultimately re-embody the trauma of my childhood. The novel, and my examination of it, concludes that love in human relationships with nonhuman animals can be a powerful conduit for empathy.

Bingo Was His Name-O

When is it okay to lie to your child? In this work of philosophical short story fiction, Peter is on the phone with his wife, who is at the veterinarian’s office with their dog, Bingo. Bingo has swollen a plastic object which is stuck in his stomach and may not pass. Their young son, Max, is frantic with concern about the family dog, however, the father is concerned about the almost $1,000 bill that will come with a potential surgery to remove the item. Peter leaves the final decision in his wife’s hands, but lies to her son and tells him they are going to do the procedure and that it will be quick and painless with a vacuum cleaner type object to pull the item out. Peter decides to stick to his lie and distract his son by offering him a soft drink as a treat.

The KID Study (Kids Interacting With Dogs): Piloting a Novel Approach for Measuring Dog-Facilitated Youth Physical Activity

Background: Two-thirds of children in the United States do not meet the National Physical Activity Guidelines, leaving a majority at higher risk for negative health outcomes. Novel, effective children’s physical activity (PA) interventions are urgently needed. Dog-facilitated PA (e.g., dog walking and active play) is a promising intervention target, as dogs support many of the known correlates of children’s PA. There is a need for accurate methods of quantifying dog-facilitated PA. Purpose: The study purpose was to determine the feasibility and acceptability of a novel method for quantifying the volume and intensity of dog-facilitated PA among dog-owning children. Methods: Children and their dog(s) wore ActiGraph accelerometers with a Bluetooth proximity feature for 7 days. Additionally, parents logged child PA with the family dog(s). Total minutes of dog-facilitated PA and percentage of overall daily moderate to vigorous PA performed with the dog were calculated. Results: Twelve children (mean age = 7.8 ± 2.9 years) participated. There was high feasibility, with 100% retention, valid device data (at least 4 days ≥6-hr wear time), and completion of daily parent log and questionnaire packets. On average, dog-facilitated PA contributed 22.9% (9.2 min) and 15.1% (7.3 min) of the overall daily moderate to vigorous PA for children according to Bluetooth proximity data and parent report, respectively. Conclusions: This pilot study demonstrated the feasibility of utilizing an accelerometer with a proximity feature to quantify dog-facilitated PA. Future research should use this protocol with a larger, more diverse sample to determine whether dog-facilitated PA contributes a clinically significant amount toward overall PA in dog-owning youth.

Investigating the relationship between heart rate changes and the human-animal bond: Insights from an external telemetry system

Heart rate changes and respiratory activities are vital physiological phenomena that provide valuable insights into the physiological and psychological states of family dogs. The bond between humans and their pet dogs necessitates a deeper understanding of this relationship. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the human-animal bond by examining heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), respiratory rate (breathe per minute, BPM), and tidal volume (TV) using an external telemetry system. A total of ten dogs were selected as participants, and their cardio-respiratory responses were evaluated in an unfamiliar environment. The baseline data for the study was established during the first stage of the Strange Situation Test (SST), known as "dog with owner." The analysis focused on changes in HR, HRV, BPM, and TV throughout the different stages of the SST. Interestingly, the results demonstrated that changes in HR did not consistently correspond to changes in HRV across all stages. During the initial encounter with the stranger (episode b, stranger entering), there were notable percentage changes in HR, HRV, and TV, despite an overall increase in BPM, although not significant. In the third stage (stranger alone with the dog), both HR and HRV parameters, as well as TV, displayed increased percentage changes, whereas BPM exhibited a decrease. Furthermore, when the dog interacted with the stranger for the second time (episode f), HR and BPM increased, while HRV and TV decreased. This pattern suggests a shift towards a more active and alert state in response to the renewed social interaction. In contrast, when the dog was left alone (episode e), HR and BPM decreased, while HRV and TV increased. Overall, these findings provide evidence that changes in heart rate and respiratory parameters reflect the emotional stress experienced by family dogs in various social contexts. Moreover, the utilization of the external telemetry system in this study offers a promising model for investigating the effects of pharmacological interventions, behavioral interventions, and animal-assisted therapy in animals. By gaining a deeper understanding of the human-animal bond, we can further enhance the well-being and quality of life for both dogs and their human companions.

The trouble with a cuddle: Families’ experiences of supervising interactions between children in middle childhood and the family dog

Abstract Background: There is growing scientific interest in the benefits for children of interacting with and engaging with domestic dogs. Since the effects of such pairings on the dog are under explored, this study aimed to explore the lived experiences of family units supervising interactions between children in middle childhood (7–12) and the family dog(s). Methods: Ten families with at least one child aged 7–12 years old (mean 8.6, SD 1.6) and a family dog were recruited via social media to participate in whole family unit face-to-face semi-structured interviews. Experience of the effects of child-dog interaction (CDI) on the family dog was explored through discussion and reflections of CDIs, the dog’s responses, and how these were managed. The interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim, and thematic analysis using a semantic approach was used to construct key themes. Results: All families reported that the most positive CDIs were of mutual play or that the dog freely approached the child with the ability to move away. This dynamic is subsequently referred to as dog freedom of choice (FOC). Most discussed experiences of dog aggression or avoidance of the child when FOC was compromised by close physical contact (CPC) from the child, such as cuddling. In most cases, the caregivers and children within the family unit were aware that the dog did not always enjoy such a CPC. However, interviewees recognised that such awareness did not always lead to cessation of the interaction. Conclusions: While shared play where FOC was supported suggested mutual benefits, CDIs perceived as expressions of affection, for example, hugs towards the family dog, may compromise dog quality of life and raise the risk of dog bites. Furthermore, a caregiver or child with conscious awareness of a dog reacting aversely to compromised FOC is not always a mechanism for ending of the interaction. This may raise questions about the efficacy of education programmes intended to raise the recognition of dog body language to change human behaviour.

Body size awareness matters when dogs decide whether to detour an obstacle or opt for a shortcut

Body-awareness is one of the fundamental modules of self-representation. We investigated how body-awareness could contribute to dogs' decision making in a novel spatial problem where multiple solutions are possible. Family dogs (N = 68) had to obtain a treat from behind a transparent fence. They had two options: either detour around the fence (7 m), or take a shortcut through a doorway (2 m). We had three conditions: small door open, large door open, and doors closed. Our results indicated that dogs assess the size of the doorway, and if they find it too small, they decide to detour instead, while in the case of the open large door, they rather opted for the shortcut without hesitation. Shorter headed dogs tended to choose open doors more often, while longer headed dogs rather chose detours, probably because of their better peripheral vision. While body size awareness did not manifest differently in dogs with short or long heads, we showed for the first time a connection between head shape and physical cognition in dogs. We showed that dogs rely on their body-awareness in a naturalistic setting where multiple solutions exist simultaneously. Dogs make decisions without lengthy trial-and-error learning and choose between options based on their body-awareness.

Methodological comparison of cancellation versus two-way choice spatial attention tests in humans and dogs.

Behavioural problems in family dogs are amongst the leading reasons for relinquishment to shelters which adversely affects animal welfare. Recent research suggests that certain problematic behavioural patterns might be analogous to human psychiatric disorders. Veterinary diagnosis of such conditions, however, is scarce, probably due to the lack of appropriate measurement tools. The current study focuses on dog behaviour resembling the human hemispatial neglect condition, which manifests itself as a deficit in attention to and awareness of one side of the space. Healthy human subjects (N = 21) and adult family dogs (N = 23) were tested with tools aimed to measure spatial attention. Tests administered to humans included validated paper and pencil neuropsychological tools to assess hemispatial neglect (cancellation tasks), as well as the canine version of that task (visuo-spatial search task). Dogs were tested with the same visuo-spatial search task as well as a two-way choice task. Results show that both in case of dogs and humans the visuo-spatial search task detects individual variation in subjects' side preferences. However, subjects' performance in the different tasks were not related.

Event-related potentials indicate differential neural reactivity to species and valence information in vocal stimuli in sleeping dogs

Dogs live in a complex social environment where they regularly interact with conspecific and heterospecific partners. Awake dogs are able to process a variety of information based on vocalisations emitted by dogs and humans. Whether dogs are also able to process such information while asleep, is unknown. In the current explorative study, we investigated in N = 13 family dogs, neural response to conspecific and human emotional vocalisations. Data were recorded while dogs were asleep, using a fully non-invasive event-related potential (ERP) paradigm. A species (between 250–450 and 600–800 ms after stimulus onset) and a species by valence interaction (between 550 to 650 ms after stimulus onset) effect was observed during drowsiness. A valence (750–850 ms after stimulus onset) and a species x valence interaction (between 200 to 300 ms and 450 to 650 ms after stimulus onset) effect was also observed during non-REM specific at the Cz electrode. Although further research is needed, these results not only suggest that dogs neurally differentiate between differently valenced con- and heterospecific vocalisations, but they also provide the first evidence of complex vocal processing during sleep in dogs. Assessment and detection of ERPs during sleep in dogs appear feasible.

Representation of rewards differing in their hedonic valence in the caudate nucleus correlates with the performance in a problem-solving task in dogs (Canis familiaris)

We have investigated dogs’ (Canis familiaris) abilities in associating different sounds with appetitive stimuli of different incentive values. The association’s establishment was first tested on family dogs (n = 20) in a problem-solving behavioural paradigm (experiment 1), then in a problem-solving behavioural paradigm as well as an fMRI study on specially trained family dogs (n = 20) (experiment 2). The aim was to show behavioural and parallel neural effects of the association formed between the two sounds and two different associated appetitive stimuli. The latency of solving the problem was considered an indicator of the motivational state. In our first experiment, where only behaviour was studied, we found that dogs were quicker in solving a problem upon hearing the sound associated with food higher in reward value, suggesting that they have successfully associated the sounds with the corresponding food value. In our second experiment, this behaviour difference was not significant. In the fMRI study, the cerebral response to the two sounds was compared both before and after the associative training. Two bilateral regions of interest were explored: the caudate nucleus and the amygdala. After the associative training, the response in the caudate nucleus was higher to the sound related to a higher reward value food than to the sound related to a lower reward value food, which difference was not present before the associative training. We found an increase in the amygdala response to both sounds after the training. In a whole-brain representational similarity analysis, we found that cerebral patterns in the caudate nucleus to the two sounds were different only after the training. Moreover, we found a positive correlation between the dissimilarity index in the caudate nucleus for activation responses to the two sounds and the difference in latencies (i.e. high reward value associated sound condition latency—low reward value associated sound condition latency) to solve the behavioural task: the bigger the difference between the conditions in latency to solve the task, the greater the difference in the neural representation of the two sounds was. In summary, family dogs’ brain activation patterns reflected their expectations based on what they learned about the relationship between two sounds and their associated appetitive stimuli.