Familiar Half Research Articles

Seeing and Believing: Henry James and the Spiritual World (review)

Reviewed by: Seeing and Believing: Henry James and the Spiritual World Michael Mirabile Hazel Hutchison . Seeing and Believing: Henry James and the Spiritual World. New York: Palgrave Macmillian, 2006. 224 pp. $65.00 (hardcover). Each generation claims Henry James as its own. Yet the precise terms and favorite motifs that support an image of our James, those qualities that permit us to speak of him as a contemporary and also reveal the historicity of the moment of possession, may seem at certain critical impasses to be strangely reversible. Under the pressure of close scrutiny our James may suddenly take the shape of a figure strikingly distant from the historical present. Or, as Hazel Hutchison reframes the matter in Seeing and Believing: Henry James and the Spiritual World, the limit-point of a predominant set of terms inevitably evokes its Derridean supplement. The specific logic of supplementarity that guides Hutchison through the strongest chapters of her study, which offer penetrating close readings of individual fictions, begins with the familiar terms of (what appears to be) James's contemporaneity to our own moment—his skepticism regarding the descriptive efficacy of language and the relativistic epistemology of his late fictions. Against the contemporizing trend, however, Hutchison's James is not easily transportable to the twenty-first century. She consistently characterizes his sensibility as late Victorian. This James's aesthetics tend to be Paterian, his ethics pragmatist. Similarly his relativism bears less resemblance to the postmodernist suspicion of metanarratives and more to the fin-de-siècle devaluation of scientific progressivism. "[T]he idea of relativity," Hutchison reminds us, "existed in philosophical and polemical debate long before it became a scientific tenet" (4). To see James differently, she suggests, involves returning him to his world. Thus Hutchison devotes considerable attention to those features of James's work that would likely appear least recognizable to today's readers, including most prominently the fascination with occult knowledge and experience. Under this rubric any number of elusive aspects of the late fiction may be listed: from the secret, unnameable insight into social life for which the narrator and his interlocutors search in The Sacred Fount [End Page 301] (1901) to the obscure purpose behind Merton Densher's culminating renunciation in The Wings of the Dove (1902). In advancing these claims, Hutchison clearly does not mean to overturn established paradigms within James scholarship. Seeing and Believing is too intensely focused on narrative detail to sustain an intervention into the entangled, broad-scale critical debate about James. It is distinguished, rather, by maintaining a scrupulous balance between familiar and unfamiliar sides of particular texts. The more familiar half of the dialectic identified in the book's title, the "seeing" half, forms the basis of an extended early chapter devoted to the dynamics of uncertainty in James. From perceptual uncertainty James develops a "language of uncertainty" (4) that, according to Hutchison, may even be understood as a kind of theory of language running parallel to Saussure's linguistics. In other words, relativism—as well as distinct yet related terms like skepticism and empiricism—should continue to be central concerns for the critic. Still, Hutchison contends, they do not fully explain the ongoing interest of James's fiction. While most critics tend to dismiss those eccentric metaphors and fragments of dialogue that are embedded in a spiritual vocabulary as so many displacements of thematic content, Hutchison takes them seriously: "James's late style reveals more than its own virtuosity" (56). Fortunately her interpretation follows through on the promise contained in this assertion. Examination of the language of uncertainty that James "speaks" (4), comprised in no small part of the recurrent references to a "mystic throb" or an "occult relation" that dot his narratives, leads Hutchison to an impressive refinement of the Jamesian sense of the sacred. Again, the basic compensatory pattern is in place: the supernatural in James arises amidst the apparent exhaustion of natural explanation. Of The Sacred Fount, for instance, Hutchison observes how "[t]he epistemological uses of empiricism are strained to their limits in this novel" (58). At those limits, contrary to expectation, James finds not a creative dead-end but an impetus for further exploration: "[T]he...

Effects of physostigmine on novelty-related location preferences

Novelty-related location preferences and activity in an exploration box were recorded for male and female Wistar albino rats following intraperitoneal injections of 0.04 or 0.08 mg/kg of either physostigmine or neostigmine. Although rearing was reduced by the highest dose of both drugs and ambulation was reduced by the same dose of neostigmine, neither agent affected the significant preferences for novelty that typified all subjects. In a second experiment designed to assess the effects of 0.08 mg/kg of the two drugs administered during rather than after confinement to the familiar half of the apparatus, neostigmine reduced rearing, walking, and ambulation while increasing defecation, but physostigmine did not affect any response. While some minor motor impairment may have arisen from its peripheral effects, the lack of changes in novelty-related location preferences failed to support facilitation of either novelty avoidance or habituation by physostigmine suggested in previous studies.

The role of self- and other-animal-produced odors in rats’ preferences for novelty in an exploration box

Following confinement to one half of an exploration box, rats were faced with both halves (novel and familiar) after each half had been washed or not. When both halves had been washed, thereby decreasing the likely influence of odors arising from the earlier presence of the subject or previous occupants, neither was preferred. When only the novel half had been washed, thereby ensuring that odors were available in the familiar half alone, familiarity was preferred. However, the novel half was preferred when it contained odor cues originating from earlier occupants, and the familiar half contained no cues or cues from occupancy by the subject either alone or in combination with those from previously tested animals. The greatest preference for novelty occurred when the familiar half contained self-produced and the novel half contained other-animal-produced odors. Apparent effects of the washing procedures on rearing and locomotion were accounted for by behavioral changes that enabled the chosen half to be occupied. Since in a second experiment differences in brightness discriminability of the two halves of the apparatus did not affect novelty preferences, it was concluded that choices were made primarily on the basis of rat-produced ol-factory information. When the exploration box technique described here is applied, this conclusion should be taken into consideration as one attempts to interpret the effects on novelty choices of pharmacological and surgical procedures likely to interfere with central olfactory mechanisms.

Sex-dependent habituation to novelty in rats

Male and female rats were familiarized with one-half of an exploration box for 30 or 60 minutes. When later tested, females showed higher preferences for the other novel half than males. Females also showed higher levels of rearing and ambulation. No sex differences were evident for grooming, freezing or defecation. The results were interpreted as females having habituated to the forced-exposure novelty of the familiar half of the apparatus more rapidly than males when the familiarization period was relatively short. With a longer period, males would have had more time to reach a similar level of habituation to that attained by females familiarized for 30 minutes. Relationships between novelty preferences and both rearing and ambulation as indices of exploration were also discussed in the light of significant correlations for males only.

Physostigmine effects on activity and reactions to novelty

Effects of 4 doses of physostigmine on reactions to novelty, rearing and ambulation in rats were observed in an exploration box which allowed free choice of novel and familiar halves. All 3 responses tended towards decreases with higher doses but, whereas this trend was significant for rearing and ambulation, it was only suggestive for reactions to novelty. The results were discussed in the light of views on cholinergically controlled habituation processes.

Scopolamine induced changes in activity and reactions to novelty

The behavior of hooded rats was observed in an exploration box comprising novel and familiar halves following IP injections of 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 or 1.00 mg/kg scopolamine or isotonic saline. Drug administration occurred after, rather than before, exposure to one of the alternative halves. All doses decreased reactions to the previously inaccessible novel half but decreases were greater for the 2 lowest doses. Rearing behavior was also suppressed by each dose whereas the number of apparatus cells entered (locomotion) was decreased by low doses but increased by high. The 3 behavioral measures showed declines in frequency during the course of each experimental session. However, low doses of the drug enhanced and high doses retarded these declines for rearing and cells entered. The study illustrated the difficulty in explaining data by unitary processes (such as attenuated habituation) when several behavioral indices and drug doses are employed within a single investigation.

Effects of LSD on exploratory behavior and locomotion in rats

Locomotion, preferences for novelty (exploration), rearing, and sitting motionless were observed in hooded and albino rats of both sexes tested in an exploration box (comprising novel and familiar halves) either 10 or 30 min after ip administration of saline or one of three doses of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). LSD had no effect on preferences for novelty, although it reduced locomotion and rearing, and increased frequencies of sitting motionless. Drug effects on the latter two responses were far greater when the rats were observed 10 rather than 30 min after injection. Hooded rats sat motionless less often, showed lower preferences for novelty and reared more frequently than albinos. Males reared less often than females. A second brief experiment suggested that depressant effects of LSD on locomotion may in some way be related to the apparatus used. When rats were observed in an open field, LSD produced an increase in locomotion.

Chlordiazepoxide modified exploration in rats.

Effects of 2.5, 3.75 and 5.0 mg/kg chlordiazepoxide on locomotion, rearing and preferences for novelty in rats were observed in an exploration box comprising a novel and a familiar half. Whereas an inverted U relationship between dose strength and locomotion was evident, rearing declined with increasing dosage. However, the two lower doses had little effect on preferences for novelty but 5.0 mg/kg produced a marked decrease to the point where the familiar half of the apparatus was preferred. It was concluded that estimates of drug effects on measures of locomotion or general activity are specific to those behaviours alone and do not necessarily relate to environmentally oriented exploration. Different views of the effects of drugs on exploratory behaviour might arise from the use of more valid indices, such as preferences for novelty.

Learning as a function of territory-related behavior patterns in the blue gourami (Trichopterus trichop terus)

Five groups of 20 adult male Three-Spot Gouramis (Trichopterus trichopterus) were used to test the hypothesis that territorial familiarity and preference for a particular territory served to enhance the learning of an avoidance response. The five group conditions were occupation of one-half of a shuttlebox for a period of 0, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h, which established the operational definition of territorial familiarity. Crossed variables for the group conditions were the presence or absence of food and a sterile or enriched environment in the familiar half of the shuttlebox. The data indicated that the interaction of territorial familiarity with food significantly improved learning. Additionally, preference for a particular territory appeared to be related to availability of food but not to quality of environment.

Effects of food deprivation on exploration in deprivationally naive rats

Abstract Deprivationally naive rats were food deprived for 2, 24 or 48 hrs. prior to observation in an exploration box consisting of novel and familiar halves. Deprivation was found to increase preferences for being in the novel half but decrease the frequency of walking responses. Licking a water tube increased with 4 hr. deprivation and then decreased with 48 hr. Female rats reared more frequently but licked a water tube less often than males. The results tended to support the view that food deprivation heightens reactivity to novelty. They also emphasised the inappropriateness of measures of locomotion alone for assessing strength of exploration.

A re-examination of the effects of age on novelty reactions and exploration in rats

Male and female rats of 2 ages (approximately 47 and 189 days) were observed in an exploration box consisting of novel and familiar halves. The younger rats travelled shorter distances and spent less time exploring than older animals. Females engaged in more locomotion than males. However, there were no age or sex effects on preferences for being in the novel half of the apparatus. There tended to be less exploration and locomotion and more grooming towards the end of a testing session than there was at the beginning. By confirming some of the author's past findings this experiment more conclusively demonstrated the effects of age on the incidence of exploratory and locomotor activities in rats.

Effects of age on novelty reactions and exploration in rats.

Female rats of three ages (approximately 39, 160 and 316 days) were individually observed in an exploration box which consisted of a novel and a familiar half. By means of a behaviour-sampling technique it was recorded which half of the box the rat was in and what sort of activity it was engaged in at the end of each of 90 10-sec. periods. The number of 8 × 8 in. units entered was also recorded. All rats were seen in the novel half more often than in the familiar half and this novelty preference was greatest for the youngest rats. However, exploration and inter-unit locomotion scores tended to be lower with the younger animals. For all three groups these two scores showed a significant decrement during an observation period.

Behaviour of male and female rats with free choice of two environments differing in novelty

Male and female albino rats were individually observed for 15-min in an exploration box with access to a novel half and a similar half to which each subject had been confined for 24 hr prior to testing (i.e. the familiar half). A behaviour-sampling technique was used whereby it was noted at the end of every 10-sec period in which half of the apparatus the subject was and in what sort of activity it was engaged. The total number of exploratory units entered was also recorded. All rats were observed more often in the novel half than in the familiar half, but there was no significant difference between males and females on this measure. However, females were seen to be engaged in exploratory activity at the end of more 10-sec periods than males. Also, the proportion of exploratory to non-exploratory activity observed in the novel half was higher for females than for males. On the other hand males were seen to be engaged in grooming, eating or drinking and freezing behaviour more often than females. Decrements in locomotor and exploratory activity occurred for males during the 15-min observation period. There were also decrements in freezing and increments in grooming for both males and females and an increment in eating or drinking for males only.

Effects of food deprivation, deprivation experience and sex on exploration in rats.

Following 0 or 48 hr current deprivation male and female rats were individually observed for 15 min in an exploration box consisting of a novel and a familiar half. Half of the subjects had gained deprivation experience by being allowed food for only 30 min a day for 10 consecutive days prior to testing. The remainder had been on an ad lib. diet for the same period. Current deprivation of 48 hr decreased locomotor activity (total number of units entered) only for deprivationally experienced rats, who showed more locomotion than naive animals when neither group was currently deprived. Also, current deprivation produced a higher frequency of exploratory activity for males but not for females. Males engaged in less exploration than females when neither sex was currently deprived. All rats showed an over‐all preference for the novel half of the apparatus, but this preference was not affected by any of the three experimental variables. However, currently deprived rats entered the novel half sooner than non‐deprived animals.