Fact-checking Research Articles

De- and recoding algorithmic systems: The case of fact checkers and fact checked users

With the recent development of debunking on social media as a dominant agenda, fact checkers have increasingly used machine learning (ML) to identify, verify and correct factual claims, as ML promises the scaling of fact checking practices. However, it also places a new actor in between the fact checkers and the fact checked users. In this paper, we conducted a contrasted analysis of how fact checkers and fact checked users understand, evaluate and act towards the algorithmic system and the data flows in Meta’s Third-Party Fact-Checking Program: We did ethnographic fieldwork in the fact checking newsroom and interviewed and did protocol analysis with the fact checked. For both professional users and end users, the algorithmic system is experienced as a black box in which they have limited insight, and their sense-making practices happen based on the data and metrics that are made visible to them. In the paper, we draw on and expanded theory on decoding algorithms by not only exploring how the two user groups engage in decoding the algorithmic system, but also actively engage in forms of recoding by attempting to adapt or modify the algorithmic system to better fit within their cultural and social context, which is characterised by both varying epistemic cultures and societal positions. While the fact checkers from their hegemonic (sometimes negotiated) position understand the program as a (sometimes stupid) tool and primarily engage in passive acts of recoding, fact checked users, from their oppositional position, understand the program as an unpredictable censoring machine and engage primarily in more active acts of recoding. Based on the analysis, we end the paper with a discussion in which we argued for understanding data reflexivity as highly relational and processual.

Modality deep-learning frameworks for fake news detection on social networks: a systematic literature review

Fake news on social networks is a challenging problem due to the rapid dissemination and volume of information, as well as the ease of creating and sharing content anonymously. Fake news stories are problematic not only for the credibility of online journalism, but also due to their detrimental real-world consequences. The primary research objective of this study is: What are the recent state-of-the-art modalities based on deep learning to detect fake news in social networks. This paper presents a systematic literature review of deep learning-based fake news detection models in social networks. The methodology followed a rigorous approach, including predefined criteria for study selection of deep learning modalities. This study focuses on the types of deep learning modalities; unimodal (refers to the use of a single model for analysis or modeling purposes) and multimodal models (refers to the integration of multiple models). The results of this review reveal the strengths and weaknesses of modalities approaches, as well as the limitations of low-resource languages datasets. Furthermore, it provides insights into future directions for deep learning models and different fact checking techniques. At the end of this study, we discuss the problem of fake news detection in the era of large language models in terms of advantages, drawbacks, and challenges.

NEWS PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT ”JABAR SABER HOAKS” IN OVERCOMING THE HOAX OUTBREAK ON SOCIAL MEDIA

This research emerged due to the increasing number of fake news on social media which has negative impacts such as misinformation and propaganda. This problem is getting worse because widespread access to social media is exacerbating the situation, even triggering social conflict. To overcome this, the West Java Diskominfo established Jabar Saber Hoaks on Instagram and websites to verify fake news and reduce its spread. The aim of this research is to understand how West Java Saber Hoaks manages news production in dealing with the spread of fake news on social media. This research uses a qualitative descriptive method with data collection techniques through in-depth interviews and observation. News production management is observed based on George R. Terry's management principles which include Planning, Organizing, Actuating, and Controlling or POAC. Research subjects included division heads, coordinators, dissemination heads, and West Java Saber Hoaks social media managers. The research results show that West Java Saber Hoax implements planning steps by setting priorities and analyzing hoax trends. Organizing is carried out by teams responsible for fact checking and social media. The clarification process is carried out by checking facts first, then distributing verified information through social media and websites. Control is carried out by monitoring the reach and response to clarifying news. In conclusion, Jabar Saber Hoaks has carried out careful planning, efficient organization, active implementation and careful control in fighting fake news on social media.

Sentence Embeddings and Semantic Entity Extraction for Identification of Topics of Short Fact-Checked Claims

The objective of this research was to design a method to assign topics to claims debunked by fact-checking agencies. During the fact-checking process, access to more structured knowledge is necessary; therefore, we aim to describe topics with semantic vocabulary. Classification of topics should go beyond simple connotations like instance-class and rather reflect broader phenomena that are recognized by fact checkers. The assignment of semantic entities is also crucial for the automatic verification of facts using the underlying knowledge graphs. Our method is based on sentence embeddings, various clustering methods (HDBSCAN, UMAP, K-means), semantic entity matching, and terms importance assessment based on TF-IDF. We represent our topics in semantic space using Wikidata Q-ids, DBpedia, Wikipedia topics, YAGO, and other relevant ontologies. Such an approach based on semantic entities also supports hierarchical navigation within topics. For evaluation, we compare topic modeling results with claims already tagged by fact checkers. The work presented in this paper is useful for researchers and practitioners interested in semantic topic modeling of fake news narratives.

“I’ll Change My Beliefs When I See It”: Video Fact Checks Outperform Text Fact Checks in Correcting Misperceptions Among Those Holding False or Uncertain Pre-Existing Beliefs

Widespread concerns about the pervasiveness of misinformation have propelled one antidote to the center of scholarly attention: the journalistic fact check. Yet, fact checks often do not work as intended. While most fact checks are text only, a compelling theoretical argument can be made for using a video format instead. In this pre-registered experiment conducted in Germany ( N = 1,093), we investigated whether using video versus text can improve fact checks’ ability to correct misperceptions about transgender women, cannabis consumption, migration, and climate change. Video fact checks outperformed text fact checks, with those holding false or uncertain pre-existing beliefs benefiting the most. We contribute to motivated reasoning theory the idea that visual information can override directional reasoning better than textual information, and that processing fluency is the mechanism by which this occurs. Our findings paint an optimistic picture for the ability of fact checks to debunk misinformation, especially for those holding misperceptions.

Leveraging Chatbots to Combat Health Misinformation for Older Adults: Participatory Design Study.

Older adults, a population particularly susceptible to misinformation, may experience attempts at health-related scams or defrauding, and they may unknowingly spread misinformation. Previous research has investigated managing misinformation through media literacy education or supporting users by fact-checking information and cautioning for potential misinformation content, yet studies focusing on older adults are limited. Chatbots have the potential to educate and support older adults in misinformation management. However, many studies focusing on designing technology for older adults use the needs-based approach and consider aging as a deficit, leading to issues in technology adoption. Instead, we adopted the asset-based approach, inviting older adults to be active collaborators in envisioning how intelligent technologies can enhance their misinformation management practices. This study aims to understand how older adults may use chatbots' capabilities for misinformation management. We conducted 5 participatory design workshops with a total of 17 older adult participants to ideate ways in which chatbots can help them manage misinformation. The workshops included 3 stages: developing scenarios reflecting older adults' encounters with misinformation in their lives, understanding existing chatbot platforms, and envisioning how chatbots can help intervene in the scenarios from stage 1. We found that issues with older adults' misinformation management arose more from interpersonal relationships than individuals' ability to detect misinformation in pieces of information. This finding underscored the importance of chatbots to act as mediators that facilitate communication and help resolve conflict. In addition, participants emphasized the importance of autonomy. They desired chatbots to teach them to navigate the information landscape and come to conclusions about misinformation on their own. Finally, we found that older adults' distrust in IT companies and governments' ability to regulate the IT industry affected their trust in chatbots. Thus, chatbot designers should consider using well-trusted sources and practicing transparency to increase older adults' trust in the chatbot-based tools. Overall, our results highlight the need for chatbot-based misinformation tools to go beyond fact checking. This study provides insights for how chatbots can be designed as part of technological systems for misinformation management among older adults. Our study underscores the importance of inviting older adults to be active co-designers of chatbot-based interventions.

Introduction. Our relationships with GenAI and the media: Testing the limits of transparency, trust and moral agency

We present the last part of this special issue on Use of Artificial Intelligence in Communication: Ethical Implications for Media. This editorial examines the role that humans should play in the responsible use of generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) in the media. It provides an overview of transparency as an ethical obligation in relation to trust and truthfulness when using GenAI to create different kinds of content. Finally, it enters into the debate about the moral status of machines as we anticipate ethical questions in the study of ethics and GenAI in the media. Six articles complete this special issue with studies examining implications of GenAI for semiotics research, public relations, advertising, fact checking, information literacy and journalism education.

Improving the Digital Skills of Young Voters Through Education to Prevent Election Hoaxes Using the Kalimasada Mafindo Application

The practical training on fact-checking using Kalimasada Mafindo was conducted to improve digital literacy and participants' ability to counteract the spread of hoaxes about elections. This training was held on 2 July 2024 at the Village Hall Hall, attended by young voters and village officials in Panca Mukti Village who were enthusiastic about understanding the importance of information verification in the digital era. The resource person or facilitator of this activity is Mafindo Volunteers, who are certified in the Fact Check. The training material includes an introduction to Kalimasada as one of the tools in the fact-checking process, techniques for identifying false information, and steps to verify data through credible sources. The participants showed positive and interactive responses during a practice session with the Kalimasada chatbot with the WhatApps 085921600500 number, where they successfully used Kalimasada to verify the correctness of information quickly and accurately. The final evaluation showed that participants understood the concept of fact-checking and had adequate ability to apply it in daily life to combat disinformation, significantly ahead of the 2024 Pilkada.

Gendered disinformation in Spanish-language fact-checking: origin, methodology, and perspectives

The recent surge in disinformation targeting gender themes poses a substantial threat to women’s equality in democratic systems. This study investigates the efforts of three fact-checking platforms prominent in Ibero-America (Maldita.es and Newtral in Spain and Chequeado in Argentina) in countering antifeminist fake news. Employing a dual methodology, we conducted a content analysis of pieces published on gender issues over one year and semi-structured interviews with representatives from these platforms. The findings unveil a consistent production of texts addressing contemporary feminist affairs. Disinformers target both the feminist movement and its historical grievances, including gender-based violence. Fact checks emerge as the primary format for combating these hoaxes, with explainers gaining against increasingly complex disinformation narratives. The verification methodology emphasizes consulting official sources and expert testimony. Interviewees acknowledge that there is still much progress to be made in gender-related fact-checking.

Chinese Journalists’ Witnessing Practice in Health Disasters

ABSTRACT While “ears-and-eyes” and “mouthpieces” are two normative roles of Chinese journalists, the latter has long been more emphasized in the mobilization model of disaster reporting. Based on in-depth interviews with Chinese journalists who witnessed city lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic, this study examines how they performed the two roles to determine the extent to which their witnessing experiences could be transformed into media discourses. It argues that journalists’ bearing witness on disaster sites presupposed not only eyewitnessing but also earwitnessing in the form of survivor interviewing, fact checking, and truth investigation. While the “mouthpiece” orientation of news media may have obscured the potential of journalistic witnessing for timely exposing public suffering, there existed journalist-media negotiations on performing the two roles. Highlighting the role asymmetry between “ears-and-eyes” and “mouthpieces”, this study examines the veracity gap in Chinese journalists’ witnessing practice that derives from the tension between journalistic autonomy and structural restraints, which may contribute to the further theorization of journalistic witnessing.

IAT/ML: a metamodel and modelling approach for discourse analysis

Language technologies are gaining momentum as textual information saturates social networks and media outlets, compounded by the growing role of fake news and disinformation. In this context, approaches to represent and analyse public speeches, news releases, social media posts and other types of discourses are becoming crucial. Although there is a large body of literature on text-based machine learning, it tends to focus on lexical and syntactical issues rather than semantic or pragmatic. Being useful, these advances cannot tackle the nuanced and highly context-dependent problems of discourse evaluation that society demands. In this paper, we present IAT/ML, a metamodel and modelling approach to represent and analyse discourses. IAT/ML focuses on semantic and pragmatic issues, thus tackling a little researched area in language technologies. It does so by combining three different modelling approaches: ontological, which focuses on what the discourse is about; argumentation, which deals with how the text justifies what it says; and agency, which provides insights into the speakers’ beliefs, desires and intentions. Together, these three modelling approaches make IAT/ML a comprehensive solution to represent and analyse complex discourses towards their understanding, evaluation and fact checking.

A knowledge enhanced learning and semantic composition model for multi-claim fact checking

To inhibit the spread of rumorous information and its severe impacts, fact checking aims at retrieving relevant evidence to verify the veracity of a given statement. Fact checking methods typically use knowledge graphs (KGs) as external repositories and develop reasoning mechanism to retrieve evidence for verifying the statement. Existing fact checking methods have focused on verifying the statement of a single claim expressed by a clause. However, as real-world rumorous information is usually complex and a textual statement is often composed of multiple clauses (i.e. represented as multiple claims instead of a single one), multi-claim fact checking is not only necessary but more important for practical applications. Multi-claim statements imply rich contextual information and modeling the interactions of multiple claims can facilitate better verification. In this paper, we propose a knowledge enhanced learning and semantic composition model for multi-claim fact checking. Our model consists of two modules, KG-based learning enhancement and multi-claim semantic composition. To fully utilize the contextual information implied in multiple claims, the KG-based learning enhancement module learns the dynamic context-specific representations via selectively aggregating relevant attributes of entities. To robustly verify multiple claims robustly, the multi-claim semantic composition module learns a unified representation for multiple claims by modeling inter-claim interactions, and then verify them as a whole on the basis of this. We conduct experimental studies to validate our proposed method, and the experimental results on three typically datasets confirmed the efficacy of our model for multi-claim fact checking.

Designing social media to foster user engagement in challenging misinformation: a cross-cultural comparison between the UK and Arab countries

Challenging others who post misinformation is a type of social correction that complements algorithm-based approaches. However, participation rates in such social acts remain limited. In this paper, we study design techniques that leverage principles of persuasive system design and communication theories to foster such prosocial behaviour across two distinct cultural contexts: the British and the Arab. A total of 462 participants completed an online survey (250 UK, 212 Arabs). The study compared the two cultural contexts regarding willingness to challenge misinformation and the persuasiveness of seven design techniques to increase that willingness, namely predefined question stickers, thinking face reaction, sentence openers, fact checker badge, social norm messages, tone detector, and private commenting. Moreover, it explores the impact of individuals’ characteristics on their perception of the techniques as being more or less persuasive than a standard comment box. The study found that the willingness to challenge misinformation was significantly higher in the Arab context than in the UK context. Moreover, except for the private commenting, all techniques were more impactful in the Arab context than in the UK context. Some techniques, such as predefined question stickers, were more effective in both cultures compared to the standard comment box, while others, like the fact checker badge, were more effective only in the Arab context. However, in the UK, sentence openers had a lower impact. Furthermore, personality traits, age, and perspective-taking showed the potential but also the varying impacts on the persuasiveness of the techniques on users’ correction of misinformation across both cultural contexts while pointing to the need for considering both personal and cultural factors in designing social-correction-based solutions.

Myth busting: Was Pulau Tiga really first created by a mud volcano eruption in 1897?

Pulau Tiga is Malaysia’s largest mud volcano, and the entire island is famously reported to have suddenly appeared in September 1897. The story of Pulau Tiga’s “birth” following two large earthquakes in the Philippines is widespread, being found in scientific papers, media stories, Wikipedia, and thousands of websites. This study “fact checks” whether Pulau Tiga really first appeared in 1897. The event is described in detail in one 1986 scientific study, and the idea of Pulau Tiga’s sudden appearance is supported by instances of islands being created by large mud volcano eruptions, such as Pulau Batu Hairan offshore Malaysia in 1988. However, maps of Borneo published prior to 1897 indicate that Pulau Tiga is charted on maps dating back to 1554 and specifically named on more than 40 maps. These maps conclusively prove that Pulau Tiga does not suddenly appear in 1897 and also indicate that Pulau Tiga has had approximately the same shape for centuries, demonstrating that the island was also not partially formed in 1897. A review of the newspapers and scientific reports from 1897 to 1904 reveals that two new islands did emerge offshore northern Borneo on 21 September 1897, but neither of them is Pulau Tiga. New mud volcano islands temporarily appeared off the western Klias Peninsula near Bukit Tomboh and off the northern tip of Sabah at the approximate position of the Pulau Batu Hairan. The origin of Pulau Tiga’s 1897 birth “myth” is proposed to be a 1986 study by McManus and Tate, who appear to have confused reports of an island forming off the Klias Peninsula in 1897 with an eruption of Pulau Tiga. This study definitively “busts” the myth of Pulau Tiga’s 1897 birth and unearths details of Malaysia’s history of large mud volcano eruptions that have been largely forgotten by the geoscience community.

Fact Check: Assessing the Response of ChatGPT to Alzheimer's Disease Myths

IntroductionThere are many myths regarding Alzheimer's disease (AD) that have been circulated on the internet, each exhibiting varying degrees of accuracy, inaccuracy, and misinformation. Large language models, such as ChatGPT, may be a valuable tool to help assess these myths for veracity and inaccuracy; however, they can induce misinformation as well. ObjectiveThis study assesses ChatGPT's ability to identify and address AD myths with reliable information. MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional study of attending geriatric medicine clinicians' evaluation of ChatGPT (GPT 4.0) responses to 16 selected AD myths. We prompted ChatGPT to express its opinion on each myth and implemented a survey using REDCap to determine the degree to which clinicians agreed with the accuracy of each of ChatGPT's explanations. We also collected their explanations of any disagreements with ChatGPT's responses. We used a 5-category Likert-type scale with a score ranging from −2 to 2 to quantify clinicians' agreement in each aspect of the evaluation. ResultsThe clinicians (n = 10) were generally satisfied with ChatGPT's explanations. Among the 16 myths, the clinicians were generally satisfied with these explanations, with [mean (SD) score of 1.1(±0.3)]. Most clinicians selected “Agree” or “Strongly Agree” for each statement. Some statements obtained a small number of “Disagree” responses. There were no “Strongly Disagree” responses. ConclusionMost surveyed health care professionals acknowledged the potential value of ChatGPT in mitigating AD misinformation; however, the need for more refined and detailed explanations of the disease's mechanisms and treatments was highlighted.

Peran Kanal Cek Fakta Liputan6.Com Dalam Mengurangi Ketidakpastian Informasi

Fact Checking Journalism is an important activity in tackling hoaxes in digital media. Liputan6.com is one of the online media that has a Fact Check Channel verified by the International Fact Checking Network (IFCN). This research examines the fact-checking procedures carried out by the Liputan6.com Fact Check Channel with the aim of understanding their efforts in dealing with hoaxes on digital media. The research method used is qualitative with a case study approach. The research results show that the Liputan6.com Fact Check Channel has an important role in reducing cognitive and behavioral uncertainty in society due to hoax information on digital media. They try to verify information, create Debunking articles to reveal facts from hoaxes, as well as Prebunking articles to provide education to prevent the spread of hoaxes. In conclusion, Liputan6.com is active in maintaining the truth of information and contributing to overcoming hoaxes in the digital era.

Fact check: Still not core journalism curriculum

Fact-checking has become a global industry, with more than 417 fact-checking outlets in 100 countries operating in 69 languages (Stencel, Ryan & Luther, 2023). According to the Duke Reporters’ Lab, half of the world’s fact checkers are associated with media outlets, but there are also 24 affiliated with academic institutions. Although the work is time consuming and resource intensive, fact-checking has increasingly been introduced to journalism programmes at universities and in professional settings. This expert article brings together some insights from a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) World Journalism Education Council (WJEC) roundtable event ‘Fact-Check and Verification as Core Journalism Curriculum’ hosted by RMIT University in Australia in 2021, alongside relevant literature exploring the nature and presence of fact-check based education approaches at that time. It concludes that while fact-checking and verification are important skills for student journalists, fact checkers do not necessarily need to be journalists, nor indeed have journalistic training. However, more students are needed who are excellent journalists and the authors argue that fact-checking is just part of that training.

Fact check: Still not core journalism curriculum

Fact-checking has become a global industry, with more than 417 fact-checking outlets in 100 countries operating in 69 languages (Stencel, Ryan & Luther, 2023). According to the Duke Reporters’ Lab, half of the world’s fact checkers are associated with media outlets, but there are also 24 affiliated with academic institutions. Although the work is time consuming and resource intensive, fact-checking has increasingly been introduced to journalism programmes at universities and in professional settings. This expert article brings together some insights from a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) World Journalism Education Council (WJEC) roundtable event ‘Fact-Check and Verification as Core Journalism Curriculum’ hosted by RMIT University in Australia in 2021, alongside relevant literature exploring the nature and presence of fact-check based education approaches at that time. It concludes that while fact-checking and verification are important skills for student journalists, fact checkers do not necessarily need to be journalists, nor indeed have journalistic training. However, more students are needed who are excellent journalists and the authors argue that fact-checking is just part of that training.

Digital Literacy to Improve The Professionalism of Online Media Journalists in Bengkulu, Indonesia

This study aims to know the competence of digital literacy Online media journalists in Bengkulu City in complying with cyber media guidelines to support professionalism ranging from verification activities to writing news or delivering coverage to editors. Also to identify efforts made by online media journalists in Bengkulu City using tools for fact checking to verify news materials. This research uses a qualitative descriptive approach. The data collection method uses interviews, observation and focus group discussion. This study's Informants are journalists registered as members of the Indonesian Cyber Media Network (JMSI) and the Indonesian Cyber Media Union (SMSI) in Bengkulu. The results of the study concluded that the literacy of journalists in using digital media is quite good. However, it cannot be included in the excellent category because journalists lack knowledge and skills in digital literacy competencies. Moreover, journalists knowledge and skills upgrades such as fact-checking or digital literacy training is minimal, eventhough journalists understand the challenges in publishing journalistic works today. Generally, journalists use tools for checking facts or verifying sources of information either conventionally or manually. However, the strength in publishing journalistic works is the collaboration of cyber media within press companies to produce quality work. The FGD found that only Bengkulu Eskpress conducts fact checks in its journalistic work, because its journalists have received fact-check training conducted by the Alliance of Independent Journalists (AJI). The study results also show that online media utilize digital-based tools because they have received fact checking training, namely Bengkulu Ekspress. Keywords: Digital literacy, professionalism, online media, journalists, fact checking.

Enhancing media literacy skill building in pedagogical universities: Our view and experience

The article presents a review of the integration of media literacy content in foreign language courses at pedagogical higher education institutions. This study is aimed to share and present for academic discussion some of the authors’ perspectives that proved to be successful in mastering media literacy skills as well as in developing language competencies in EFL learners. A particular focus has been made on the methodological base, the principles and strategies of media literacy skill building as well as on the criteria for the selection of learning materials and techniques that ensure the effective implementation of media literacy programs into the existing syllabi. The use of contemporary teaching methods such as flipped classroom, problem-based learning, group projects, capitalizing on higher order thinking skills and interactive classroom activities is viewed as an integrated approach aimed to develop critical perception of media products alongside with a range of sociocultural and communicative competences in students of pedagogy. One of the main objectives of integrating media literacy content into a variety of tertiary courses is to enhance emotional resilience to manipulative influences of the media which is achieved through activating critical thinking skills referring to information flow as well as to students’ own media consumption habits. The pilot implementation being conducted in the terms of the international project “Learn to Discern”, preserved its original methodological constituents which included media literacy as such, information literacy, critical thinking, digital and visual literacy and fact checking skills. Acknowledgements The study is supported by the International Research and Exchanges Board (IREX), the Embassy of the United States of America and the Embassy of the United Kingdom in Ukraine, in partnership with the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine and the Ukrainian Press Academy. Disclosure Statement The authors reported no potential conflicts of interest. * Corresponding author: Svitlana Buchatska, 0000-0001-6063-5858 sbuchatska@vspu.edu.ua