Facets Of Extraversion Research Articles

Associations between a multifaceted personality and academic performance in secondary school

Whereas meta-analytic evidence has accumulated about the important role personality characteristics such as the Big Five traits play for academic performance in secondary school, less is known about the specific behavioral and emotional repertoire that drives these associations. A closer look at the facet-level of Big Five traits can provide this knowledge helping to better understand why students differ in their success at school. We therefore studied associations between Big Five facets and academic performance (grades and standardized test scores in German and mathematics) in three independent secondary student samples (Study 1 N = 3866, Study 2 N = 2290, and Study 3 N = 366), using regression analytic, structural equation modeling, and meta-analytic procedures to test facet-level associations and incremental associations above traits. We found facet-differential associations with academic performance indicators, particularly for facets of conscientiousness, openness, and extraversion. Evidence for incremental effects of facets beyond traits was weak. Self-discipline (conscientiousness) was the only facet that consistently showed incremental effects across Samples 1 and 2. The results can stimulate research and practice to identify the underlying mechanisms that drive these associations and also highlight the specific emotional and behavioral repertoire that should be supported to help students to succeed in school.

Revisiting the nature and strength of the personality-job performance relations: New insights from interpretable machine learning.

Prior research on the relations between the five-factor model (FFM) of personality traits and job performance has suggested mixed findings: Some studies pointed to linear relations, while other studies revealed nonlinear relations. This study addresses these gaps using machine learning (ML) methods that can model complex relations between the FFM traits and job performance in a more generalizable way, particularly interpretable ML techniques that can more effectively reveal the nature (linear, curvilinear, interactive) and strength (feature/relative importance) of the personality-job performance relations. Overall, the results based on a sample of 1,190 employees suggest that nonlinear ML methods perform slightly yet consistently better than linear regression methods in modeling the relation of job performance with FFM facets, but not with factors. On the factor level, conscientiousness exhibits a noticeable curvilinear relation with job performance, and it also interacts with other FFM factors to predict job performance. Conscientiousness displays the strongest feature importance across job types, followed by agreeableness. On the facet level, most FFM facets show limited evidence for curvilinear and interactive (with other facets) relations with job performance. While several conscientiousness facets (order, deliberation, self-discipline) display the strongest feature importance in predicting job performance, some agreeableness (straightforwardness, altruism) and extraversion (positive emotionality) facets also emerge as important features for different sales job types (corporate vs. individual sales). We discuss the implications of these findings for research and practice. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Examining the Connectorship Scale: Factor Structure and Correlations With Self-Efficacy and Extraversion.

The Connectorship Scale was designed to assess how leaders connect with their followers and is described to measure eight dimensions: social interactivity, dependability, positive communication, presenting oneself, storytelling ability, belief in networking, tangible introduction, and belief in the importance of online networking. This study explores the scale properties and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) of the Connectorship Scale and examines how the scale scores correlate with self-efficacy and extraversion based on responses from 454 (52% women) adult business students. The internal consistency estimates suggested that one of the subscales, positive communication, was unreliable; we therefore excluded that subscale from further analyses. A CFA of the seven-factor model suggested good fit once two pairs of error terms were allowed to correlate. Self-efficacy and all facets of extraversion positively correlated with six of the seven connectorship subscales, the exception being the tangible introduction scale. The results raise concern about the positive communication subscale from the Connectorship Scale but do support the use of the other seven subscales for research about engaged and effective leadership.

Working in the Dark? Exploring the Relationship Between the Dark Triad and Early Maladaptive Schemas

AbstractEarly maladaptive schemas (EMS) may contribute to the Dark Triad’s (i.e., Machiavellianism, narcissism, psychopathy) dysfunctional workplace outcomes. EMS — the core concept of Schema Therapy — are entrenched emotional, cognitive, memories, and physiological patterns that form during early life in response to unmet needs and elaborate throughout life. As the workplace can involve hierarchy and power, EMS may be potentially reinforced in this context. This novel study aimed to explore the relationships between EMS and the Dark Triad facets within a working sample. The study also examined whether the Dark Triad facets yield distinct relationships with EMSs. The sample (N = 210) reported working ≥ 20 h per week in paid- or full-time role in private and public sectors. Participants completed an online self-report survey comprising the Young Schema Questionnaire Short Form-Third Edition, Five Factor Narcissism Inventory-Short Form (Antagonism and Extraversion facets), Five Factor Machiavellianism Inventory (Planfulness, Antagonism and Agency facets), and Corporate Psychopathy Inventory-Revised (Boldness, Ruthlessness, and Interpersonal Dominance facets). Zero-order correlations indicated that all Dark Triad facets significantly and positively correlated with the Entitlement/Grandiosity, Unrelenting Standards, and Punitiveness EMSs. Most Dark Triad facets positively correlated with Approval/Recognition Seeking and Mistrust/Abuse EMSs. The Entitlement/Grandiosity EMS demonstrated the strongest positive correlation with most Dark Triad facets. The results suggest that those with elevated Dark Triad traits in the working sample share a similar cognitive and emotional worldview (i.e., EMS) that may activate in the workplace context. Expanding this research could inform a ‘Dark’ Schema Workplace model and Schema Therapy interventions to potentially reduce the Dark Triad’s dysfunctional workplace outcomes.

Possibility Thinking Scale: An initial psychometric exploration

Although there has been longstanding work on possibility thinking (PT), there is no current scale that researchers can use to measure and study this important action-based orientation. In this paper, we report on four studies with English and Polish speaking participants ( N > 1,500) focused on developing and providing an initial evaluation of the Possibility Thinking Scale (PTS). Across the four studies, we examined the factor structure of the PTS by comparing one- and three-factor models and tested the links between PT and relevant correlates: divergent thinking, creative agency factors, and facets of Openness and Extraversion. After a series of replications presented in Studies 1 to 3, Study 4 ( N = 491) explored revisions to the scale, using new items developed with input from Large Language Models. Taken together, our results indicate that the final version of PTS reflects three factors of one’s orientation to the possible (i.e. awareness, excitement, and exploration). Our results also indicate that the factors were associated with, but sufficiently distinct from related constructs. We close by discussing strengths and weaknesses of PTS and propose future directions for research.

Personality and Well-Being Across and Within Relationship Status.

Trends of increasing singlehood call for understanding of well-being correlates across and within relationship status. While personality is a major predictor of well-being, descriptive trait profiles of singles have not been developed. In the present research (N = 1,811; 53% men; Mage = 29), single and partnered individuals completed measures of personality and well-being, including life, relationship status, and sexual satisfaction. Results revealed effects whereby single individuals were lower in extraversion and conscientiousness but higher in neuroticism. Additional facet analyses showed that singles were lower across all extraversion facets, but specifically lower in productiveness (conscientiousness facet) and higher in depression (neuroticism facet). Largely, personality was associated with well-being similarly for single and partnered people. Furthermore, relationship status accounted for variance in well-being above and beyond personality traits. Our results suggest individual differences in personality could play an important role in understanding well-being's link with relationship status.

Whither dominance? An enduring evolutionary legacy of primate sociality.

This article discusses dominance personality dimensions found in primates, particularly in the great apes, and how they compare to dominance in humans. Dominance traits are seen in virtually all primate species, and these dimensions reflect how adept an individual is at ascending within a social hierarchy. Among great apes, dominance is one of the most prominent personality factors but, in humans, dominance is usually modeled as a facet of extraversion. Social, cultural, and cognitive differences between humans and our closest ape relatives are explored, alongside humanity's hierarchical and egalitarian heritage. The basic characteristics of dominance in humans and nonhuman great apes are then described, alongside the similarities and differences between great apes. African apes live in societies each with its own hierarchical organization. Humans were a possible exception for some of our history, but more recently, hierarchies have dominated. The general characteristics of high-dominance humans, particularly those living in industrialized nations, are described. Dominance itself can be subdivided into correlated subfactors: domineering, prestige, and leadership. Various explanations have been posed for why dominance has declined in prominence within human personality factor structures, and several possibilities are evaluated. The value of dominance in personality research is discussed: dominance has links to, for instance, age, sex, aggression, self-esteem, locus of control, stress, health, and multiple socioeconomic status indicators. The piece concludes with recommendations for researchers who wish to assess dominance in personality.

Extraversion, social interactions, and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic: Did extraverts really suffer more than introverts?

A large body of research suggests that extraversion is positively related to well-being. However, it is unclear whether this association can be explained by social participation (i.e., more extraverted individuals engage in social interactions more frequently) or social reactivity (i.e., more extraverted individuals profit more from social interactions) processes. Here, we examined the role of social interactions for the extraversion-well-being relationship during the COVID-19 pandemic, an unprecedented time of reduced social contact. We analyzed data from an international, longitudinal study (Study 1: 10,523 assessments provided by 4,622 participants) and two experience sampling studies (Study 2: 29,536 assessments provided by 293 participants; Study 3: 61,492 assessments provided by 1,381 participants). Preregistered multilevel structural equation models revealed that extraversion was robustly related to well-being, even when social restrictions were in place. Across data sets, we found some support for the social participation hypothesis (i.e., the relationship between extraversion and well-being is mediated by social interactions), but the social reactivity hypothesis (i.e., extraversion moderates the relationship between social interactions and well-being) was not consistently supported. Strikingly, however, exploratory analyses showed that the social reactivity hypothesis was supported for specific facets of extraversion (i.e., sociability) and well-being (i.e., activated positive affect). Moreover, changes in social interaction patterns during the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g., decreases in face-to-face interactions and interactions with friends) were unrelated to extraversion, and more extraverted individuals did not suffer more from these changes. Taken together, these findings underline the robustness of the effect of extraversion on well-being during a societal crisis. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Common genetic and environmental bases of the mental disorders and personality traits: Special focus on the hierarchical model of psychopathology and NEO-PI-R facets.

This study examined whether phenotypic correlations between psychopathological dimensions and personality traits of different hierarchical levels originate from common genetic and environmental sources of variance. Participants were 386 monozygotic and 204 dizygotic twins. The Psychiatric Diagnostic Screening Questionnaire (PDSQ) was applied along with the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R). The results of the CFA confirmed the hypothesis of the internalizing and externalizing dimensions underlying PDSQ scales. The results indicated a significantly greater role of genetic compared to environmental factors in the relationship between internalizing psychopathology and personality traits. Facets of neuroticism showed positive genetic links with internalizing disorders, while negative genetic links were shown for all facets of extraversion except excitement-seeking, competence, self-discipline, achievement striving, actions, and trust. Lower-order personality traits were shown to be associated with internalizing disorders more intensively than the broader domains to which they belong, both at the phenotypic and genetic levels. High neuroticism, together with several facets from the domain of extraversion and conscientiousness seems to represent an increased genetic susceptibility to the disorders from the internalizing spectrum. Results also suggest that specific environmental factors which are not shared with personality traits contribute to the internalizing symptoms.

A network analysis of disordered eating symptoms, big-five personality traits, and psychological distress in Chinese adults.

Previous studies have revealed associations between disordered eating symptoms, big-five personality traits, and psychological distress. However, limited research has explored these relationships as a network, including their interconnections, and even less has done so in non-Western populations. We employed network analysis to investigate the co-occurrence of disordered eating symptoms, big-five personality traits, and psychological distress in Chinese adults. A sample of 500 Chinese adults (256 men) completed measures assessing big-five personality traits, psychological distress, and disordered eating symptoms. The network of personality traits, psychological distress, and disordered eating symptoms was estimated, including its central and bridge nodes. The central nodes in the network were the facets of openness (like adventure), extraversion (like going to social and recreational parties), and disordered eating symptoms (dissatisfaction with body weight or shape). Moreover, certain facets of neuroticism (always worrying something bad will happen), psychological distress (feeling worthless), and an inverse facet of extraversion (bored by parties with lots of people) were identified as essential bridge nodes in maintaining the structure of the network. Our findings suggest that personality traits (e.g., openness and extraversion) and body dissatisfaction are important in maintaining the network in a community sample of Chinese adults. While future replication is needed, findings from this study suggest that individuals with negative self-thinking, predisposed neuroticism, and extraversion may be at risk of developing disordered eating symptoms. The present study contributes to existing knowledge by employing a network perspectiveto examine the associations between disordered eating symptoms, big-five personality traits, and psychological distress in a Chinese adult community sample. The identified facets of neuroticism and extraversion and symptoms of psychological distress may be worthy of targeting in the prevention and treatment of disordered eating in the Chinese context.

Meta-analytic relations between personality and cognitive ability.

Cognitive ability and personality are fundamental domains of human psychology. Despite a century of vast research, most ability-personality relations remain unestablished. Using contemporary hierarchical personality and cognitive abilities frameworks, we meta-analyze unexamined links between personality traits and cognitive abilities and offer large-scale evidence of their relations. This research quantitatively summarizes 60,690 relations between 79 personality and 97 cognitive ability constructs in 3,543 meta-analyses based on data from millions of individuals. Sets of novel relations are illuminated by distinguishing hierarchical personality and ability constructs (e.g., factors, aspects, facets). The links between personality traits and cognitive abilities are not limited to openness and its components. Some aspects and facets of neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness are also considerably related to primary as well as specific abilities. Overall, the results provide an encyclopedic quantification of what is currently known about personality-ability relations, identify previously unrecognized trait pairings, and reveal knowledge gaps. The meta-analytic findings are visualized in an interactive webtool. The database of coded studies and relations is offered to the scientific community to further advance research, understanding, and applications.

The Relationship between Personality and Creative Self-Beliefs at Different Levels of Personality Hierarchy

In recent decades, research has shown that one set of individual factors contributing to creative self-beliefs are personality traits, with openness showing the strongest relationship. However, these associations have been studied at higher levels of the personality hierarchy and mostly in non-musician samples. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between personality (measured at factor and facet levels) and two types of creative self-beliefs, trait-like creative self-efficacy (tCSE) and creative personal identity (CPI), in a sample of a cappella singers. A total of 128 individuals (64% women) participated in the study. Participants were members of 18 conveniently sampled traditional Croatian a cappella groups. Personality factors and facets were measured with the BFI-2 questionnaire (Soto & John, 2017), while creative self-beliefs were measured with the Short Scale of Creative Self (Karwowski et al., 2018). At the factor level, openness had the highest correlation with both tCSE and CPI. At the facet level, the highest correlations with tCSE were found for creative imagination, an openness facet, and energy level, an extraversion facet, while with CPI for all openness facets, creative imagination, aesthetic sensitivity and intellectual curiosity. In linear regression analyses, the only significant predictors of CPI were openness at the factor level and creative imagination at the facet level. Significant predictors of tCSE were openness and neuroticism at the factor level and creative imagination and sociability at the facet level. Personality facets explained more variance in both types of creative self-beliefs than factors.

Five-Factor Model Personality Domains and Facets Associated with Markers of Cognitive Health.

Using a diverse, age-stratified sample (N=3,478; age range 18-90) this study examines the cross-sectional association between five-factor model personality traits - domains and facets - and three measures of cognitive health - processing speed, visuospatial ability, subjective memory - and whether these associations vary by age, race, and ethnicity. Consistent with the literature on personality and cognitive health, higher openness and conscientiousness were associated with better cognitive performance and subjective memory, whereas higher neuroticism was associated with slower processing speed and worse subjective memory but was unrelated to visuospatial ability. Moderation analyses suggested some associations were stronger in midlife compared to younger and older adulthood but were generally similar across race and ethnicity. The facet-level analyses indicated the components of each domain most strongly associated with cognitive function (e.g., the responsibility facet of conscientiousness) and suggested some differences across facets within the same domain (e.g., depression was associated with worse performance, whereas anxiety was unrelated to performance; sociability was the only facet of extraversion associated with worse performance). The present research is consistent with the larger literature on personality and cognition and extends it by documenting similarities and differences across facets and demographic groups.

Dominance in human (Homo sapiens) personality space and in hominoid phylogeny.

Unlike nonhuman primates, individual differences between humans in dominance do not appear as broad personality factors. This may be attributable to differences between the questionnaires used to study human and nonhuman primate personality. Alternatively, this may reflect differences in the organization of personality in humans and nonhuman primates. To determine which of these possibilities was most likely, 1,147 participants were recruited and asked to rate their personality and/or that of somebody else on the Hominoid Personality Questionnaire (HPQ), which has been used to study nonhuman primate personality. A large subset of these participants (~80%) also completed self- and/or rater reports of one of three questionnaires used to measure human personality. Exploratory factor analyses of HPQ rater report data yielded five factors. These factors correlated mostly in expected ways with scales from questionnaires used to study human personality. Exploratory factor analyses of HPQ self-report data yielded no clear number of factors and no consistent evidence with respect to the presence of a dominance factor. Subsequent analyses compared HPQ scales that represented dominance factors in chimpanzees, bonobos, mountain gorillas, and orangutans to scales derived from the Revised NEO Personality Inventory, including Fearless Dominance, which combined Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Extraversion facets, Emotional Stability (the inverse of Neuroticism), and Extraversion's Assertiveness facet. Fearless Dominance and Assertiveness were most like the great ape dominance factors. The absence of human dominance factors, therefore, appears to reflect present or past social conditions of our species. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

“Feeling Powerful” versus “Desiring Power”: A pervasive and problematic conflation in personality assessment?

Feeling powerful and desiring power, the “having” versus “wanting” psychological experiences of power, are often conflated within a single measurement dimension (e.g., ascendance, social influence, dominance, agentic extraversion, assertiveness, social boldness). Across six studies, employing multiple modes of assessment, we examine the differential associations of tendencies toward feeling powerful and desiring power with a range of interpersonal functioning variables. Feeling powerful was associated with more harmonious interpersonal tendencies (e.g., agreeableness, empathy), whereas desiring power was associated with less harmonious interpersonal tendencies (e.g., hostility, Machiavellianism). Nomological nets of a wide range of extant assessment measures (e.g., facets of extraversion and psychopathic personality) may be distorted due to the conflation of these two power constructs, with implications for many domains of research.

Personality differences between internal medicine and surgical residents in an Asian population

PurposePersonality traits often have an impact on the way individuals relate to each other as colleagues and the patients we treat. It is often perceived that distinct personality exist between different specialties and may help predict success during one’s training and career.MethodsObjective of the study was to compare the personality between surgical and medical residents. Thirty-five medical residents and 35 surgical residents completed the Revised NEO Personality Inventory, a validated measure of personality traits. A score was generated for each of the 5 major character traits namely: neuroticism(N), extraversion(E), openness(O), conscientiousness(C), agreeableness(A). Each of these traits were subdivided into 6 component facets. This was compared with sociodemographic characteristics.ResultsMedical residents displayed higher scores in the area of overall Agreeableness, with a mean score of 47.4 vs 40.5. Within Agreeableness facets, medical residents also displayed higher scores of straightforwardness, altruism and modesty. Surgical residents displayed higher scores in terms of overall Extraversion (52.4 vs 45.4). Within the Extraversion facets, surgical residents were also more assertive and excitement-seeking. There was no difference in the overall neuroticism domain; however, within the neuroticism facets, surgical residents had statistically higher mean scores in angry hostility and impulsiveness. Gender stratification did not result in any statistically significant difference.ConclusionThere are fundamental differences between personalities of medical and surgical residents. Detailed analysis of each individual’s data could be useful, with proper assistance and coaching, for residents in learning more about their personalities and how these impact their clinical practice. This can be beneficial in future career counselling and the development of a more holistic medical practitioner.

Facets of Personality and Risk of Cognitive Impairment: Longitudinal Findings in a Rural Community from Sardinia.

Few studies have examined the associations between personality facets and dementia risk and rarely included individuals from rural settings or with low education. To examine the association between personality and the risk of cognitive impairment. Participants (N = 1,668; age 50 to 94 at baseline; 56.4% women; 86.5% less than high school diploma) were from a rural region of Sardinia (Italy) who completed the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) during the first wave (2001-2004) and the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) at waves two to five (2005-2021). Cox regression was used to test personality and covariates as predictors of cognitive impairment based on MMSE education-adjusted cutoffs. During the up to 18-year follow-up (M = 10.38; SD = 4.76), 187 individuals (11.2%) scored as cognitively impaired. Participants with higher neuroticism (particularly the depression facet [HR = 1.22, 95% CI = 1.06-1.40]), and lower agreeableness (particularly the modesty facet [HR = 0.83, 95% CI = 0.71-0.97]) and lower conscientiousness (particularly the dutifulness facet [HR = 0.78, 95% CI = 0.67-0.92]) were at higher risk of cognitive impairment. Lower warmth ([HR = 0.75, 95% CI = 0.65-0.87], facet of extraversion) and ideas ([HR = 0.76, 95% CI = 0.65-0.89], facet of openness) were also associated with increased risk of impairment. These associations were virtually unchanged in models that accounted for other risk factors, including smoking, depression, obesity, hypertension, diabetes, and apolipoprotein E (APOE) ɛ4 carrier status. Across the five domains, sex and the APOE variant did not moderate the associations. In a sample with demographic characteristics underrepresented in dementia research, this study identifies personality domains and facets most relevant to the risk of cognitive impairment.

Associations between Extraversion and Working Memory: A facet-level correlational research

BackgroundEmpirical findings on the Extraversion – Working memory (WM) correlation don't seem to point to a relation between them, even though this relation is widely expected to emerge due to the neurophysiological underpinnings they seem to share. On previous research, Extraversion was assessed mostly at factor level, excluding the facets. In case there was a connection between WM and few specific facets of Extraversion, it could have been overshadowed by those which don't take part on it. Thus, the aim of this study is to seek for significant facet-level Extraversion – WM correlations. MethodWM performance and Extraversion were assessed in a sample of 87 participants using a 2 n-back task and six facet-level Extraversion scales of the International Personality Item Pool. ResultsSignificant correlations emerged between facet E1 (Friendliness) and efficacy (error rate), and between E3 (Assertiveness) and efficiency (median reaction time) in the WM test. ConclusionsThe friendliest and most assertive people tended to show a slightly worse WM performance than the ones with lower scores on such facets. Thus, WM doesn't seem to be related with Extraversion, but with only two of its indicators.

What is the mindful personality? Implications for physical and psychological health

Given the paucity of research examining relationships between mindfulness and specific facets of personality, we conducted detailed analyses to explore associations between personality facets, dispositional mindfulness, and health. Overall, 781 participants completed the Five Factor Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), the Big Five Inventory-2 (BFI-2) to measure personality factors and facets, and the RAND 36-Item Health Survey 1.0 (RAND-36). As expected, BFI-2 factors and facets and FFMQ subscales, except Observing, were consistently correlated. Canonical correlations of BFI-2 facets and FFMQ subscales provided two statistically significant functions. Function 1, Self-Regulation, included FFMQ Acting with Awareness, Non-Judging, and Non-Reacting, as well as BFI-2 Negative Emotionality (Anxiety, Depression, Emotional Volatility), Conscientiousness (Productiveness, Responsibility), and Extraversion (Assertiveness, Energy). Function 2, Self-Awareness, comprised of FFMQ Describing and Observing, and all facets of Open-Mindedness. A latent profile analysis produced three latent profiles: Self-Regulation was defined by higher FFMQ subscales as well as higher Extraversion (all facets), Agreeableness (all facets), Conscientiousness (all facets), and lower Negative Emotionality (all facets); Self-Dysregulation was defined by lower scores on most FFMQ subscales, BFI-2 Extraversion facet scores, Agreeableness (Trust), Conscientiousness (Productiveness), and higher Negative Emotionality facets; and, an Average profile included midrange levels of mindfulness and personality facets. Further, there were statistically significant differences in RAND-36 physical and psychological health based on the latent profiles. The novel findings examining the facet-level relationship between personality and mindfulness contribute to prior inconclusive literature. These results presenting a nuanced understanding of the association between dispositional mindfulness and personality provide preliminary information suggesting that self-regulation can affect health.

Is personality stable and symptoms fleeting? A longitudinal comparison in adolescence

Few investigations have directly compared personality and internalizing symptoms stability within the same sample and have not included personality facets. This study examined rank-order stability and mean-level change of Big Five domains, facets of neuroticism and extraversion, and internalizing symptoms in a sample of 550 adolescent females. Personality and symptoms were assessed every nine months for three years. Three year rank-order stability was higher for personality domains and facets compared to symptoms. Notable exceptions included lower stability of depressivity and positive emotionality facets. Facets and symptoms showed similar mean level change. Overall, we observed modest and variable temporal differences between symptoms and traits; symptoms exhibited high rank-order stability and low mean-level change, but domains and facets were generally more stable.