FA Intakes Research Articles

Is Habitual Dietary Intake of Fats Associated with Apelin Gene Expression in Visceral and Subcutaneous Adipose Tissues and Its Serum Levels in Obese Adults?

Introduction: Apelin could be one of the last protective defenses before developing obesity-related disorders, including insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and hypertension, which can be modified by dietary intake. The present study investigated the association of habitual intake of total fatty acids (TFAs), saturated-, monounsaturated-, polyunsaturated FAs, n-3, and n-6 FAs with Apelin expression in visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT). Methods: We obtained VAT and SAT from 168 participants (64 nonobese and 104 obese) who had undergone open abdominal surgery. Dietary intake information was gathered with a valid and reliable food frequency questionnaire. The mRNA expression of the Apelin gene was analyzed by real-time PCR. Results: Apelin serum levels were increased in the obese subjects compared to the nonobese group (p = 0.016). The SAT and VAT Apelin mRNA levels were significantly elevated in the obese participants compared to the nonobese ones (p < 0.05). Based on BMI status, only obese subjects indicated a positive association between SAT and VAT Apelin expression and TFA intake (p < 0.001). However, this association was observed between SAT and VAT Apelin gene expression and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and n-3 FA intakes in both obese and nonobese groups (p < 0.05). Conclusion: High Apelin gene expression was associated with TFA intake in obese subjects in both fat tissues. However, habitual intake of PUFA and n-3 FA was associated with Apelin gene expression in obese and nonobese individuals. Our results indicate a determinative role of the quality and quantity of FA intake on adipose tissue.

The Sources, Synthesis and Biological Actions of Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids in Red Meat: An Overview.

The maximisation of available resources for animal production, food security and maintenance of human–animal wellbeing is important for an economically viable, resilient and sustainable future. Pasture and forage diets are common sources of short chain omega-3 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), while grain-based and feedlot diets are common sources of short chain omega-6 (n-6) PUFA. Animals deposit n-3 and n-6 PUFA as a result of their direct consumption, as feeds or by synthesis of longer chain PUFA from short chain FA precursors in the body via desaturation and elongation processes. Research conducted over the last three decades has determined that the consumption of n-3 PUFA can improve the health and wellbeing of humans through its biological, biochemical, pathological and pharmacological effects. n-6 PUFA also play an important role in human health, but when consumed at high levels, are potentially harmful. Research shows that current consumption of n-6 PUFA by the human population is high due to their meal choices and the supplied food types. If consumption of n-3 PUFA from land- and marine-based foods improves human health, it is likely that these same food types can improve the health and wellbeing of livestock (farm animals) by likewise enhancing the levels of the n-3 PUFA in their circulatory and tissue systems. Modern agricultural systems and advanced technologies have fostered large scale animal and crop production systems. These allow for the utilisation of plant concentrate-based diets to increase the rate of animal growth, often based on economics, and these diets are believed to contribute to unfavourable FA intakes. Knowledge of the risks associated with consuming foods that have greater concentration of n-6 PUFA may lead to health-conscious consumers avoiding or minimising their intake of animal- and plant-based foods. For this reason, there is scope to produce food from plant and animal origins that contain lesser amounts of n-6 PUFA and greater amounts of n-3 PUFA, the outcome of which could improve both animal and human health, wellbeing and resilience to disease.

The Association between Omega-3 Fatty Acid Intake and Human Brain Connectivity in Middle-Aged Depressed Women.

Omega-3 fatty acid (n-3 FA) intake is known to have a preventive effect on depressive symptoms in a general population. This study assessed the effects of n-3 FA intake on depressive symptoms and brain function in middle-aged women. Depressive symptoms were screened using the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression scale (CES-D) assessment questionnaires, and n-3 FA intakes were assessed using semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. We found that n-3 FA intakes were negatively associated with depressive symptoms in middle-aged women. Psychiatrists diagnosed the presence of depressive disorders using the 5th edition of the Mental Disorder Diagnosis and Statistics Manual (DSM-5). Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) was performed to investigate the association between n-3 FA intake and brain functional connectivity. Functional connectivity of the right middle frontal cortex (default mode network) and the right middle temporal pole (frontoparietal network) was positively associated with depressive symptom scores and negatively associated with n-3 FA intakes. In conclusion, high n-3 FA intake decreases the risk of depressive symptoms and modifies the brain functional connectivity in middle-aged women.

Choline Supplementation Mitigates the Adverse Effects of a High Folic Acid Maternal Diet on Food Intake Regulation in the Offspring

Abstract Objectives Folic acid (FA) intake by many women in North America is exceeding recommendations. We have shown that high maternal FA induces methylation-dependent programming of energy regulation associated with an obesogenic phenotype in adult rat offspring. However, it is unclear if this is a direct effect of high FA or due to an imbalance between FA and other methyl-nutrients (i.e., choline) in the 1-carbon cycle. Unlike FA, choline intake by women is below recommendations and is absent from most prenatal supplements, potentially affecting fetal development. The objective of this study was to examine the mechanisms and effects of choline content in high FA maternal diets on in-utero programming of energy regulation and later-life offspring phenotype. Methods Pregnant Wistar rats were fed an AIN-93 G diet with recommended FA and choline (1X, RFRC, control), or 5X-FA diet with choline at 0.5X-(HFLC), 1X-(HFRC), or 2.5X- (HFHC). In pups at birth, brain and liver 1-carbon metabolites, hypothalamic DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) activity and global DNA methylation (5-mC%) were measured. At weaning, one male pup/dam was fed the control diet and weekly weight-gain and food intake were recorded for 20 weeks. Results Offspring born to dams on the HFLC and HFRC, but not HFHC diet, had higher food intake (P &amp;lt; 0.05) and weight-gain (P &amp;lt; 0.01) than controls. In liver at birth, free choline was lower in HFHC than in HFLC pups, but betaine was unaffected. In contrast, in brains, betaine but not free choline concentrations, directly reflected the maternal choline diets. These results suggest that choline may modulate central food intake pathways via the methyl-donor betaine, warranting further investigation. Hypothalamic DNMT activity was highest (P &amp;lt; 0.05) in HFLC pups but global methylation was not affected. Thus, gene expression by RNA sequencing and gene-specific methylation in the hypothalamus is in progress to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the observed phenotype. Conclusions Increased maternal choline mitigates the high FA diet induced increase in body weight and food intake in the adult offspring and results in tissue-specific changes in 1-carbon metabolism at birth. These findings have potential application to human health, providing support to optimize choline and FA intakes by women of childbearing age. Funding Sources CIHR-INMD.

Associations between fatty acid intakes and plasma phospholipid fatty acid concentrations in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition

AbstractIntroductionFatty acids (FA) are highly active molecules involved in different metabolic pathways. Several FA have direct tumorigenic effects in animal and cell-line models and recent epidemiological studies also suggest associations with cancer risk. Some of these health effects are associated with the phospholipid (PL) FA composition of cell membranes what may be related to dietary FA intake. This study aims to assess the correlation between FA intake and the plasma PL FA status in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort.MethodsDietary intake of individual FA was estimated using centre-specific validated dietary questionnaires and the National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference of the United States. Circulating levels of 60 individual PL FA were measured in baseline venous plasma phospholipid samples in nested case-controls studies within the EPIC cohort (n = 9,996). The fatty acid composition in the phospholipid fraction was measured by gas chromatography in plasma samples. Spearman rank correlations were calculated to determine associations between FA intakes and plasma PL levels.ResultsResults indicated low to moderately high associations between FA intake and plasma levels. Low correlations were found between intakes of total saturated FA or total monounsaturated FA and plasma levels. Moderate positive correlations were particularly found for long-chain n-3 poly-unsaturated FA (r = 0.35) with the highest (r = 0.41) for n-3 PUFA docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Moderately high correlations were found for the exogenous trans-FA (r = 0.53 for total trans-FA; r = 0.48 for industrial trans-FA (elaidic acid)). Sensitivity analysis showed some attenuation of most correlations among cancer cases compared to controls.DiscussionOur findings suggest that dietary FA intake influences the plasma PL FA status to a certain extent for several FA isomers, particularly those that are not or less efficiently endogenously produced. As diet is a modifiable risk factor, these findings are important for future public health strategies focusing on cancer prevention. Although the level of detail in dietary questionnaires is rather limited, these results are showing their potential to assess the intake of FA isomers in large-scale populations where biological measurements are not feasible for the full cohort.

Fatty acids from dairy and meat and their association with risk of coronary heart disease

PurposeThe relationship of total, saturated, mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated fatty acids (SFA, MUFA, PUFA) with coronary heart disease (CHD) is debated. We hypothesized that the association of dairy-derived FA with CHD may be different than the association of meat-derived FA with CHD. We therefore aimed to directly compare association of FA intakes from dairy and meat with risk of CHD using substitution models.MethodsBaseline (1993–1997) FA intake was measured using a validated food frequency questionnaire among 35,767 participants from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition-Netherlands cohort (EPIC-NL). Incident CHD events (n = 2374) were obtained through linkage with national registries during a mean follow-up of 15 years. Association of FA from dairy substituted with FA from meat with CHD risk was estimated through multivariable Cox regression.ResultsParticipants consumed 81.9 (SD 28.7) grams of FA per day, of which 17.9 (SD 5.2) was from dairy and 15.3 (SD 9.5) from meat. Substituting 1 en% of dairy-derived SFA with meat-derived SFA was associated with higher CHD risk (HR 1.06, 95% CI 1.02–1.10), but substituting dairy-derived MUFA or PUFA did not (HRMUFA 1.03, 95% CI 0.97–1.09; HRPUFA 1.17, 95% CI 0.90–1.53).ConclusionsOur modelling suggests that substituting dairy SFA with meat SFA is associated with a higher risk of CHD, but substituting dairy MUFA or PUFA with meat FA is not. These results need to be replicated in other cohorts with different fat intakes, preferably with larger variation in the intake of MUFA and PUFA from dairy and meat.

Association between polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory markers in patients in secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease

ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to assess the association between polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and inflammatory biomarkers among patients in secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease (CVD). MethodsIn this cross-sectional substudy from BALANCE Program Trial, we have collected data from 364 patients with established CVD. Twenty-four-hour dietary recalls and plasma FA concentrations were analyzed to estimate the FA intake. Inflammatory biomarkers measurement consisted of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, C-reactive protein, adiponectin, and tumor necrosis factor-α. After log-transformation of inflammatory biomarkers, multivariate-adjusted general linear model was used to examine the effect of FA intake. The association was adjusted for body mass index, waist circumference, energy, smoking status, age, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, physical activity, and calcium channel blockers. ResultsPUFAs were inversely associated with C-reactive protein levels (P = 0.006) and with IL-1 β. The increase of 1 g/1000 kcal in PUFAs, omega-3, and omega-6 reduces, on average, 6%, 48%, and 8% respectively, the mean concentration of IL-1 β. ConclusionOmega-3 and omega-6 FA intakes are inversely associated with inflammatory biomarkers among CVD patients. Additional studies on omega-3 and omega-6 intake in relation to inflammatory biomarkers in patients in secondary prevention of CVD are needed, particularly regarding dietary patterns that are rich in some sources of PUFA.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Maternal and Child Health: An Updated Systematic Review.

To update a prior systematic review on the effects of omega-3 fatty acids (n-3 FA) on maternal and child health and to assess the evidence for their effects on, and associations with, additional outcomes. MEDLINE®, Embase®, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences (CAB) Abstracts from 2000 to August 2015; eligible studies from the original report; and relevant systematic reviews. We included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of any defined dose of n-3 FA (or combination) compared to placebo, any other n-3 FA, or alternative dose with an outcome of interest conducted in pregnant or breastfeeding women or neonates (preterm or term). We also included prospective observational studies that analyzed the association between baseline n-3 FA intake or biomarker level and followup outcomes. Postnatal interventions began within a week of birth for term infants and within a week of beginning enteral or oral feeding for preterm infants. Standard methods were used for data abstraction and analysis, according to the Evidence-based Practice Center Methods Guide. We identified 4,275 potentially relevant titles from our searches, of which 95 RCTs and 48 observational studies met the inclusion criteria. Risk of bias was a concern with both RCTs and observational studies. Outcomes for which evidence was sufficient to draw a conclusion are summarized here with the Strength of Evidence (SoE). (Outcomes for which the evidence was insufficient to draw a conclusion are summarized in Appendix G of the report.). Most studies in this report examined the effects of fish oil (or other combinations of DHA and EPA) supplements on pregnant or breastfeeding women or the effects of infant formula fortified with DHA plus AA. As with the original report, with the exception of small increases in birth weight and length of gestation,n-3 FA supplementation or fortification has no consistent evidence of effects on peripartum maternal or infant health outcomes. No effects of n-3 FA were seen on gestational hypertension, peripartum depression, or postnatal growth. Apparent effects of n-3 FA supplementation were inconsistent across assessment methods and followup times for outcomes related to infant visual acuity, cognitive development and prevention of allergy and asthma. Future RCTs need to assess standardized preparations of n-3 and n-6 FA, using a select group of clinically important outcomes, on populations with baseline n-3 FA intakes typical of those of most western populations.

Intake levels of dietary long-chain PUFAs modify the association between genetic variation in FADS and LDL-C

Polymorphisms of the FA desaturase (FADS) gene cluster have been associated with LDL, HDL, and triglyceride concentrations. Because FADS converts α-linolenic acid (ALA) and linoleic acid into PUFAs, we investigated the interaction between different PUFA intakes and the FADS polymorphism rs174547 (T>C) on fasting blood lipid and lipoprotein concentrations. We included 4,635 individuals (60% females, 45–68 years) from the Swedish population-based Malmö Diet and Cancer cohort. Dietary intakes were assessed by a modified diet history method including 7-day registration of cooked meals. The C-allele of rs174547 was associated with lower LDL concentration (P = 0.03). We observed significant interaction between rs174547 and long-chain ω-3 PUFA intakes on LDL (P = 0.01); the C-allele was only associated with lower LDL among individuals in the lowest tertile of long-chain ω-3 PUFA intakes (P < 0.001). In addition, significant interaction was observed between rs174547 and the ratio of ALA and linoleic FA intakes on HDL (P = 0.03). However, no significant associations between the C-allele and HDL were detected within the intake tertiles of the ratio. Our findings suggest that dietary intake levels of different PUFAs modify the associated effect of genetic variation in FADS on LDL and HDL

A rapid dietary assessment tool to estimate erythrocyte omega‐3 fatty acid levels

The omega‐3 index (O3I), the percentage of long chain omega‐3 fatty acids (LC n‐3 FAs) in erythrocyte membranes, is an emerging risk factor for sudden cardiac death. A dietary tool to assess LC n‐3 FA intake validated by the O3I would be useful in clinical settings. We hypothesized that a single‐question tool measuring the frequency of LC n‐3 FA‐rich fish consumption would correlate more strongly with the O3I than dietary recall data due to the episodic nature of fish consumption. Healthy participants (n=29) were asked: “How often do you eat—as a main course—tuna or other non‐fried fish? a) &gt; 1x/month, b) 2–3x/month, c) 1x/week d) 2x/week, e) &gt;2x/week.” A blood sample was taken, and 3, unannounced 24‐hour recalls were taken over 2 wks. The O3I's for each fish intake level were: 3.76±0.15%, 5.04±0.01%, 4.08±0.14%, 5.65±0.08%, and 5.94±0.36% (respectively; a, b vs e, p&lt;0.05). LC n‐3 FA intakes by recall (mg/d/1000 kcal) were: 18±2, 80±25, 388±110, 205±30, and 309±48 (respectively; a vs e, p&gt;0.05). The Spearman correlation between O3I and LC n‐3 FA intake was 0.38 (p=0.04). The model predicting the O3I using ordinal frequency categories had R2 of 0.31 (p=0.002), and using LC n‐3 FA intake as a continuous variable had an R2 of 0.15 (p=0.04). We conclude that a single question focusing on the habitual intake of n‐3‐rich fish provided a better estimate of the O3I than dietary recalls. (Self‐funded).

A method for assessing dietary intakes of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and trans fatty acids in an Irish adult population

The present study aimed to quantify dietary intakes of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and trans fatty acids (trans FA) in Irish adults using the North/South Ireland Food Consumption Survey (NSIFCS). To update the NSIFCS database, specific approaches were necessary to select accurate data. Published references were the main data source used to update for EPA and DHA (21.7%), while the UK Nutrient Databank was most frequently used to update for trans FA (46.7%). Total EPA and DHA mean daily intake was 275 mg/day whilst trans FA mean daily intake was 0.72% food energy. Younger adults had significantly lower intakes of EPA and DHA than older adults. The present study shows that dietary EPA and DHA intakes in the Irish adult population are below recommendations, especially among the younger population. Conversely, trans FA intakes are within the recommended value of < 2% food energy.

New evidence for the cardiovascular benefits of long chain omega-3 fatty acids

The role of long chain omega-3 fatty acids (LC n-3 FAs) as cardioprotective agents has become even clearer with the recent publication of the Japan EPA Lipid Intervention Study. This was the largest randomized controlled trial in the field, and it demonstrated that even in a population with one of the highest LC n-3 FA intakes in the world, the addition of eicosapentaenoic acid could reduce cardiac events. A comprehensive analysis of the risks and benefits of fish consumption was likewise recently published that should quiet any remaining fears that there are substantial risks to consuming oily fish such as salmon. A new meta-analysis has now demonstrated that reduced tissue/blood levels of LC n-3 FAs provide a better indication of increased cardiovascular risk than the n-6:n-3 ratio. Finally, a supplementation study in cardiac surgery patients has demonstrated both the time course and extent of incorporation of LC n-3 FAs into the human heart.

Nutrition education intervention increases total ω-3 fatty acid intakes in heart patients living in the Midwest

The objective of this research was to assess the impact of a nutrition education intervention on intake of total ω-3 fatty acids (n-3 FA) in heart patients. The intervention design was a randomized trial comparing 2 interventions: decisional balance (DB) and no decisional balance (NDB). The outcome measures were total dietary n-3 FA intake and food sources. Intakes were measured using an n-3 FA food frequency questionnaire at baseline, at 1 month (midpoint), and at 2 months (end). Participants were a convenience sample of 36 adults (15 males, 21 females) recruited from a local heart clinic. Data were processed using the SPSS computer software (version 10.0, SPSS, Chicago, Ill). Two-way repeated measures analysis of variance with post hoc tests (least significant difference) were used to assess differences in total dietary n-3 FA intake over time and changes in intake from food groups. Total ω-3 FA intakes for both interventions increased from baseline to midpoint ( P < .001) and from baseline to end ( P < .014). Although there was no significant difference between groups, the DB intervention increased consumption of fruits, vegetables, nuts/seeds, fish/seafood, dairy, eggs, and legumes at 1 month and maintained the increases in vegetables, eggs, and legumes at 2 months ( P < .05). The NDB intervention increased consumption of fruits, nuts/seeds, dairy, vegetables, fish/seafood, and eggs at 1 month ( P < .05), and maintained the increases in dairy, fish/seafood, and eggs at 2 months. The intervention could be used by health care providers and nutrition educators who work with populations that will benefit from consuming more total dietary n-3 FA.

Accelerated solvent extraction for quantitative measurement of fatty acids in plasma and erythrocytes

Consumption of fish rich in n-3 highly unsaturated FAs (i.e., EPA and DHA) has been suggested to decrease the risk of lifestyle-related diseases such as coronary heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and dementia. Blood levels of those FA are known appropriate biomarkers of both the corresponding dietary FA intakes and fish consumption. In place of traditional handwork methods for extracting FA, we performed an accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) for at least 13 selected FA in plasma and erythrocytes to measure them by GLC. The FA levels (concentrations and compositions) in 35-50 microL of plasma or erythrocytes were extracted by ASE and measured by GLC. Intra- and interassay coefficients of variation were < or = 6.0% for both blood materials, except with a minor group of FA (< or = 1.0% of total FA). When ASE was compared with two traditional handwork methods, FA levels in plasma from 18 healthy subjects were all coincident with very high Pearson's correlation coefficients for the three sets of the same 18 samples (r > or = 0.85 to 0.95, P < 0.0001), except for 18:0 (r = 0.59, P < 0.01). Using ASE and GLC, we have developed a new method for determination the levels of FA in plasma and erythrocytes as biomarkers for dietary intake of fish, fat, and FA. This new method makes it feasible to measure small volumes of samples, automatically, quantitatively, routinely, easily, rapidly and cheaply, with acceptable precision and accuracy.

Effect of substitution of low linolenic acid soybean oil for hydrogenated soybean oil on fatty acid intake

Low linolenic acid soybean oil (LLSO) has been developed as a substitute for hydrogenated soybean oil to reduce intake of trans FA while improving stability and functionality in processed foods. We assessed the dietary impact of substitution of LLSO for hydrogenated soybean oil (HSBO) used in several food categories. All substitutions were done using an assumption of 100% market penetration. The impact of this substitution on the intake of five FA and trans FA was assessed. Substitution of LLSO for current versions of HSBO resulted in a 45% decrease in intake of trans FA. Impacts on other FA intakes were within the realm of typical dietary intakes. No decrease in intake of alpha-linolenic acid was associated with the use of LLSO in place of HSBO because LLSO substitutes for HSBO that are already low in alpha-linolenic acid.

Omega-3 Fatty Acid Consumption and Food Sources Differ among Elderly Men Living in Coastal and Internal Regions of Saudi Arabia

Research suggests that omega-3 fatty acids (n-3 FAs) play an important role in reducing the risk of heart diseases. The objectives of the current study were to investigate the consumption and the food sources of n-3 FAs in two samples of elderly men living in different geographic locations (coastal and internal regions) of Saudi Arabia. Sixty men from each of the coastal and the internal regions provided a 24-hour recall and 2-day food record and a food frequency questionnaire. Food Processor Plus computer program software (ESHA Version 0.7; Salem, Oregon, 2002) was used to analyze the dietary intake. The intake of total n-3 FAs, alpha-lenolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) were higher among the coastal region residents than among the internal residents (P < 0.05). English walnuts, salmon, canola oil, malabar cavalla and king mackerel were the top five foods contributing to the n-3 FA intakes in the coastal region. The top five foods contributing to the n-3 FA intakes in the internal region were English walnuts, lamb, whole milk, baked beans and chicken. The food contributing the most to the intake of n-3 FAs in both regions were English walnuts. In conclusion, the food consumption pattern for food providing n-3 FAs differs by location and coastal residents consume more than twice as much n-3 FAs as internal residents. Nutrition education intervention among internal residents is needed for increasing the consumption of n-3 FAs.

OMEGA-3 FATTY ACID INTAKE AND INCIDENCE OF NON-FATAL MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION DIFFER BETWEEN COASTAL AND INTERNAL REGIONS OF SAUDI ARABIA

The purpose of this study was to investigate the intake of omega-3 fatty acid (n-3 FA) in two population groups in Saudi Arabia—one living in the coastal region and one living in the internal region—and to examine the relationship between n-3 FA intakes and non-fatal myocardial infarction and risk factors for heart disease. Sixty elderly men from each region participated. Histories of non-fatal myocardial infarction and heart disease risk factors were collected from medical files. A 24-hour dietary recall and two-day food records were collected. Data were analyzed using student t-test, chi-square, and point-biserial correlation. Total n-3 FA intakes were higher among residents in the coastal than the internal region (P<0.05). There was a negative correlation between n-3 FA intakes and rates of non-fatal myocardial infarction in both the coastal (p<0.01) and internal (P<0.05) regions. We conclude that food consumption patterns of n-3 FA differ by region of the country. Intake of n-3 FA is negatively correlated with non-fatal myocardial and at least one primary risk factor of heart disease in both regions.