Eye-tracking Recordings Research Articles

Predicting Behaviour Patterns in Online and PDF Magazines with AI Eye-Tracking.

This study aims to improve college magazines, making them more engaging and user-friendly. We combined eye-tracking technology with artificial intelligence to accurately predict consumer behaviours and preferences. Our analysis included three college magazines, both online and in PDF format. We evaluated user experience using neuromarketing eye-tracking AI prediction software, trained on a large consumer neuroscience dataset of eye-tracking recordings from 180,000 participants, using Tobii X2 30 equipment, encompassing over 100 billion data points and 15 consumer contexts. An analysis was conducted with R programming v. 2023.06.0+421 and advanced SPSS statistics v. 27, IBM. (ANOVA, Welch's Two-Sample t-test, and Pearson's correlation). Our research demonstrated the potential of modern eye-tracking AI technologies in providing insights into various types of attention, including focus, engagement, cognitive demand, and clarity. The scientific accuracy of our findings, at 97-99%, underscores the reliability and robustness of our research, instilling confidence in the audience. This study also emphasizes the potential for future research to explore automated datasets, enhancing reliability and applicability across various fields and inspiring hope for further advancements in the field.

An EEG & eye-tracking dataset of ALS patients & healthy people during eye-tracking-based spelling system usage

This research presents a dataset consisting of electroencephalogram and eye tracking recordings obtained from six patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) in a locked-in state and one hundred seventy healthy individuals. The ALS patients exhibited varying degrees of disease progression, ranging from partial mobility and weakened speech to complete paralysis and loss of speech. Despite these physical impairments, the ALS patients retained good eye function, which allowed them to use a virtual keyboard for communication. Data from ALS patients was recorded multiple times at their homes, while data from healthy individuals was recorded once in a laboratory setting. For each data recording, the experimental design involved nine recording sessions per participant, each corresponding to a common human action or demand. This dataset can serve as a valuable benchmark for several applications, such as improving spelling systems with brain-computer interfaces, investigating motor imagination, exploring motor cortex function, monitoring motor impairment progress in patients undergoing rehabilitation, and studying the effects of ALS on cognitive and motor processes.

ChineseEEG: A Chinese Linguistic Corpora EEG Dataset for Semantic Alignment and Neural Decoding

An Electroencephalography (EEG) dataset utilizing rich text stimuli can advance the understanding of how the brain encodes semantic information and contribute to semantic decoding in brain-computer interface (BCI). Addressing the scarcity of EEG datasets featuring Chinese linguistic stimuli, we present the ChineseEEG dataset, a high-density EEG dataset complemented by simultaneous eye-tracking recordings. This dataset was compiled while 10 participants silently read approximately 13 hours of Chinese text from two well-known novels. This dataset provides long-duration EEG recordings, along with pre-processed EEG sensor-level data and semantic embeddings of reading materials extracted by a pre-trained natural language processing (NLP) model. As a pilot EEG dataset derived from natural Chinese linguistic stimuli, ChineseEEG can significantly support research across neuroscience, NLP, and linguistics. It establishes a benchmark dataset for Chinese semantic decoding, aids in the development of BCIs, and facilitates the exploration of alignment between large language models and human cognitive processes. It can also aid research into the brain’s mechanisms of language processing within the context of the Chinese natural language.

Learning from (re)experience: What mobile eye-tracking video can help us learn about the cognitive processes of teaching

IntroductionClassroom teachers need to monitor a group of students varying in interest, knowledge, and behavior at the same time that they present a lesson and adapt it on the fly to student questions and understanding. Many areas of expertise are associated with special kinds of perceptual skills, and teaching presents its own perceptual challenges. We discuss the special nature of the expert looking that teachers must develop and how it relates to more general models of expertise. Standard methods of classroom video are limited in their support of teacher professional looking, and we explore an alternative using mobile eyetracking that overcomes many of these limits. The combination of mobile eyetracking records and standard video enables the participant to “re-experience” a situation in a vivid way, while also seeing things they missed the first time through.MethodsWe report a study in which pairs of novice and experienced teachers teaching the same students watched their own mobile eyetracking recordings while performing a retrospective think-aloud task.ResultsExperienced teachers were better able to describe high-level features and their significance in the lessons, while novices were more likely to talk about in-the-moment events such as things they failed to see while teaching. This is consistent with work on expertise that suggests there are both costs and benefits to expert looking.DiscussionOur results suggest that the ability to quickly grasp the meaning of a classroom situation may be associated with less awareness of some of the lower-level features on which those inferences are based. Novice and experienced teachers notice different things and have different perspectives on classroom processes; understanding the cognitive process of teachers will require combining insights from each. The methods used in this study are quickly becoming less costly and more accessible, and they have a unique role to play in research and in teacher professional development.

Pistol: Pupil Invisible Supportive Tool in the Wild

This paper is an in the wild evaluation of the eye tracking tool Pistol. Pistol supports Pupil Invisible projects and other eye trackers (Dikablis, Emke GmbH, Look, Pupil, and many more) in offline mode. For all eye tracking recordings, Pistol is able to compute pupil and iris ellipse, eye aperture, eye lids, 3D eye ball, optical vector estimation, and eye movement types. For Pupil Invisible projects, it also supports the detection of a special marker and allows the 2D and 3D gaze estimation mapped on the scene camera. In this extended journal paper for Pistol we focus on challenging in the wild situations, such as reflections on glasses, eye tracking during sport, changing lightning conditions, and this for two eye trackers. The tool Pistol can be downloaded here Link

Early Childhood Education and Care Teachers’ Gaze Behavior Across Pedagogical Episodes in Toddler Groups in Finland

AbstractTeacher–child interaction is central in pedagogical activities in early childhood education and care (ECEC). In these activities, teachers’ visual gaze is a valuable tool for communication, but this has received little attention in ECEC research. Recent technological advancements in eye-tracking provide an approach to take a deeper look at how teachers focus their visual gaze during activities. Our study focused on three ECEC teachers’ visual gaze behavior during pedagogical activities in a group of children under three years of age (later toddlers) in Finland, to gain understanding of how teachers use their gaze to facilitate interactions and pedagogy. The data were collected using eye-tracking glasses in two types of activities: play and guided activity. From these eye-tracking recordings, we identified pedagogical episodes (e.g., guidance). To analyze teachers’ visual gaze behavior, we also coded the fixations to the different areas of interest (e.g., teaching materials). The findings showed that the teachers’ aim for interaction with children was associated with their visual gaze behavior on teacher- and child-initiated episodes. Moreover, the activity's structure and the teacher's position also played a role in how teachers focus their visual gaze. In this article, we also discuss the potential of eye-tracking technology in reflection of practices implemented in ECEC and we argue that the use of eye-tracking technology is an area that merits further exploration.

Using behavior and eye-fixations to detect feigned memory impairment.

Detecting invalid cognitive performance is an important clinical challenge in neuropsychological assessment. The aim of this study was to explore behavior and eye-fixations responses during the performance of a computerized version of the Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM-C) under standard vs. feigning conditions. TOMM-C with eye-tracking recording was performed by 60 healthy individuals (31 with standard instruction - SI; and 29 were instructed to feign memory impairment: 21 Naïve Simulators - NS and 8 Coached Simulators - CS) and 14 patients with Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and memory complaints performed. Number of correct responses, response time, number of fixations, and fixation time in old vs. new stimuli were recorded. Nonparametric tests were applied for group comparison. NS produced fewer correct responses and had longer response times in comparison to SI on all three trials. SI showed more fixations and longer fixation time on previously presented stimuli (i.e., familiarity preference) specially on Trial 1, whereas NS had more fixations and longer fixation time on new stimuli (i.e., novelty preference) specially in the Retention trial. MS patients produced longer response time and had a different fixation pattern than SI subjects. No behavioral or oculomotor difference was observed between NS and CS. Healthy simulators have a distinct behavioral and eye-fixation response pattern, reflecting a novelty preference. Oculomotor measures may be useful to detect exaggeration or fabrication of cognitive dysfunction. Though, its application in clinical populations may be limited.

Implementation of Eye-Tracking Recording Tool into Narupa iMD VR Environment for Application in Chemistry Education

Implementation of Eye-Tracking Recording Tool into Narupa iMD VR Environment for Application in Chemistry Education

Filtering Eye-Tracking Data From an EyeLink 1000: Comparing Heuristic, Savitzky-Golay, IIR and FIR Digital Filters.

In a prior report (Raju et al., 2023) we concluded that, if the goal was to preserve events such as saccades, microsaccades, and smooth pursuit in eye-tracking recordings, data with sine wave frequencies less than 75 Hz were the signal and data above 75 Hz were noise. Here, we compare five filters in their ability to preserve signal and remove noise. We compared the proprietary STD and EXTRA heuristic filters provided by our EyeLink 1000 (SR-Research, Ottawa, Canada), a Savitzky- Golay (SG) filter, an infinite impulse response (IIR) filter (low-pass Butterworth), and a finite impulse filter (FIR). For each of the non-heuristic filters, we systematically searched for optimal parameters. Both the IIR and the FIR filters were zero-phase filters. All filters were evaluated on 216 fixation segments (256 samples), from nine subjects. Mean frequency response profiles and amplitude spectra for all five filters are provided. Also, we examined the effect of our filters on a noisy recording. Our FIR filter had the sharpest roll-off of any filter. Therefore, it maintained the signal and removed noise more effectively than any other filter. On this basis, we recommend the use of our FIR filter. We also report on the effect of these filters on temporal autocorrelation.

Investigation of Camera-Free Eye-Tracking Glasses Compared to a Video-Based System.

Technological advances in eye-tracking have resulted in lightweight, portable solutions that are capable of capturing eye movements beyond laboratory settings. Eye-tracking devices have typically relied on heavier, video-based systems to detect pupil and corneal reflections. Advances in mobile eye-tracking technology could facilitate research and its application in ecological settings; more traditional laboratory research methods are able to be modified and transferred to real-world scenarios. One recent technology, the AdHawk MindLink, introduced a novel camera-free system embedded in typical eyeglass frames. This paper evaluates the AdHawk MindLink by comparing the eye-tracking recordings with a research "gold standard", the EyeLink II. By concurrently capturing data from both eyes, we compare the capability of each eye tracker to quantify metrics from fixation, saccade, and smooth pursuit tasks-typical elements in eye movement research-across a sample of 13 adults. The MindLink system was capable of capturing fixation stability within a radius of less than 0.5∘, estimating horizontal saccade amplitudes with an accuracy of 0.04∘± 2.3∘, vertical saccade amplitudes with an accuracy of 0.32∘± 2.3∘, and smooth pursuit speeds with an accuracy of 0.5 to 3∘s, depending on the pursuit speed. While the performance of the MindLink system in measuring fixation stability, saccade amplitude, and smooth pursuit eye movements were slightly inferior to the video-based system, MindLink provides sufficient gaze-tracking capabilities for dynamic settings and experiments.

Altered neural oscillations underlying visuospatial processing in cerebral visual impairment.

Visuospatial processing deficits are commonly observed in individuals with cerebral visual impairment, even in cases where visual acuity and visual field functions are intact. Cerebral visual impairment is a brain-based visual disorder associated with the maldevelopment of central visual pathways and structures. However, the neurophysiological basis underlying higher-order perceptual impairments in this condition has not been clearly identified, which in turn poses limits on developing rehabilitative interventions. Using combined eye tracking and EEG recordings, we assessed the profile and performance of visual search on a naturalistic virtual reality-based task. Participants with cerebral visual impairment and controls with neurotypical development were instructed to search, locate and fixate on a specific target placed among surrounding distractors at two levels of task difficulty. We analysed evoked (phase-locked) and induced (non-phase-locked) components of broadband (4-55 Hz) neural oscillations to uncover the neurophysiological basis of visuospatial processing. We found that visual search performance in cerebral visual impairment was impaired compared to controls (as indexed by outcomes of success rate, reaction time and gaze error). Analysis of neural oscillations revealed markedly reduced early-onset evoked theta [4-6 Hz] activity (within 0.5 s) regardless of task difficulty. Moreover, while induced alpha activity increased with task difficulty in controls, this modulation was absent in the cerebral visual impairment group identifying a potential neural correlate related to deficits with visual search and distractor suppression. Finally, cerebral visual impairment participants also showed a sustained induced gamma response [30-45 Hz]. We conclude that impaired visual search performance in cerebral visual impairment is associated with substantial alterations across a wide range of neural oscillation frequencies. This includes both evoked and induced components suggesting the involvement of feedforward and feedback processing as well as local and distributed levels of neural processing.

NeuMa - the absolute Neuromarketing dataset en route to an holistic understanding of consumer behaviour

Neuromarketing is a continuously evolving field that utilises neuroimaging technologies to explore consumers’ behavioural responses to specific marketing-related stimulation, and furthermore introduces novel marketing tools that could complement the traditional ones like questionnaires. In this context, the present paper introduces a multimodal Neuromarketing dataset that encompasses the data from 42 individuals who participated in an advertising brochure-browsing scenario. In more detail, participants were exposed to a series of supermarket brochures (containing various products) and instructed to select the products they intended to buy. The data collected for each individual executing this protocol included: (i) encephalographic (EEG) recordings, (ii) eye tracking (ET) recordings, (iii) questionnaire responses (demographic, profiling and product related questions), and (iv) computer mouse data. NeuMa dataset has both dynamic and multimodal nature and, due to the narrow availability of open relevant datasets, provides new and unique opportunities for researchers in the field to attempt a more holistic approach to neuromarketing.

Central Visual Attention in Primary Open-angle Glaucoma

SIGNIFICANCE To better understand the implication of a potential cognitive change in glaucoma, patients were stimulated in central visual areas considered functionally normal to discard an effect due to the loss of vision during an attentional task. The outcome might improve the follow-up on the impact of the pathology. PURPOSE This study aimed to evaluate the effect of primary open-angle glaucoma on the visual attention system by recording responses of behavioral and oculomotor strategies. METHODS We included 20 individuals with primary open-angle glaucoma (62.1 ± 7.2 years old), 18 age-matched control subjects (58.4 ± 7.2 years old), and 20 young control subjects (25.7 ± 3.5 years old). The procedure consisted of visual (eye-tracking recordings) and manual detection of a target. All participants had to detect a square with a vertical bar within distractors (squares, triangles, and circles with a horizontal or vertical bar) of identical size of 1.6 × 1.6° visual angle. The shapes were displayed concentrically on a radius of 5° of visual angle. All participants were tested to ensure that their visual field sensitivity was normal within ±5° central vision. RESULTS In responding manually, glaucoma participants were slower than age-matched control subjects (1723 ± 488 vs. 1263 ± 385 milliseconds; P < .01). Eye-tracking recordings showed that glaucoma participants found the target within the same time frame as age-matched control subjects. Compared with the young group, the scanpath length and average fixation duration on distractors were significantly longer for the glaucoma patients (+235 pixels, +104 milliseconds) and the age-matched control participants (+120 pixels, +39 milliseconds). Impaired contrast sensitivity was correlated with longer response time, longer scanpath, and longer fixation on distractors. CONCLUSIONS Glaucoma affects the manual response times in a visual attention task, but patients can visually detect the target as quickly as age-matched control subjects. Different clinical factors predicted the performances. The age of the patients was associated with longer scanpath. The visual field loss (mean deviation) was linked with longer visual response time. The loss of contrast sensitivity predicted the behavioral change on fixation duration to the distractors, global response time, visual response time, and scanpath length.

Detection of dyslexia in Danish based on eye tracking recordings

Detection of dyslexia in Danish based on eye tracking recordings

RAN-related neural-congruency: a machine learning approach toward the study of the neural underpinnings of naming speed.

Naming speed, behaviorally measured via the serial Rapid automatized naming (RAN) test, is one of the most examined underlying cognitive factors of reading development and reading difficulties (RD). However, the unconstrained-reading format of serial RAN has made it challenging for traditional EEG analysis methods to extract neural components for studying the neural underpinnings of naming speed. The present study aims to explore a novel approach to isolate neural components during the serial RAN task that are (a) informative of group differences between children with dyslexia (DYS) and chronological age controls (CAC), (b) improve the power of analysis, and (c) are suitable for deciphering the neural underpinnings of naming speed. We propose a novel machine-learning-based algorithm that extracts spatiotemporal neural components during serial RAN, termed RAN-related neural-congruency components. We demonstrate our approach on EEG and eye-tracking recordings from 60 children (30 DYS and 30 CAC), under phonologically or visually similar, and dissimilar control tasks. Results reveal significant differences in the RAN-related neural-congruency components between DYS and CAC groups in all four conditions. Rapid automatized naming-related neural-congruency components capture the neural activity of cognitive processes associated with naming speed and are informative of group differences between children with dyslexia and typically developing children. We propose the resulting RAN-related neural-components as a methodological framework to facilitate studying the neural underpinnings of naming speed and their association with reading performance and related difficulties.

GlassesValidator: A data quality tool for eye tracking glasses

According to the proposal for a minimum reporting guideline for an eye tracking study by Holmqvist et al. (2022), the accuracy (in degrees) of eye tracking data should be reported. Currently, there is no easy way to determine accuracy for wearable eye tracking recordings. To enable determining the accuracy quickly and easily, we have produced a simple validation procedure using a printable poster and accompanying Python software. We tested the poster and procedure with 61 participants using one wearable eye tracker. In addition, the software was tested with six different wearable eye trackers. We found that the validation procedure can be administered within a minute per participant and provides measures of accuracy and precision. Calculating the eye-tracking data quality measures can be done offline on a simple computer and requires no advanced computer skills.

The process and product of translation revision: empirical data from student translators using eye tracking and screen recording

ABSTRACT As the final phase of the translation process, self-revision has traditionally been a relatively neglected component despite it being widely acknowledged as critical to achieving high-quality translation and in translator training. To identify effective educational interventions for self-revision, the current paper reports on a study that collected empirical data from student translators (n = 72) who were randomly assigned to different conditions (traditional, screen recording, and eye tracking) in highly ecologically valid bidirectional tasks. Six features of eye tracking and screen recording were identified as indicators of potential translation difficulties which could be used to direct student translator’s overt visual attention in the revision phase. We found that eye tracking was the most effective way of assisting student translators in self-revising their translations, regardless of the direction of translation. Further, average fixation duration and backward saccades in the eye tracking recording condition, and pauses and concurrent revision activity in the screen recording condition were the most useful features in helping the student translators to identify potential translation errors and thereby enhance the quality of their translation after revisions. Qualitative data showed that the student translators became more confident and had a clearer understanding of their own translation processes after watching the recordings.

Exploring nurses' multitasking in clinical settings using a multimethod study

Nurses often multitask in the process of managing patient care and communicating with healthcare providers simultaneously within a limited time, which can negatively affect patient care and safety. In this multimethod research, we conducted a time and motion study to record nursing activities using eye trackers for 23 participants (9 nurses and 14 patients). The frequency and duration of single and multitasking activities were analyzed. Additionally, we conducted focus group interviews (FGIs) with 12 nurses (2–5 nurses per group) to further investigate their multitasking experience. The total duration of the eye tracker recordings was 3,399 min. Daily nursing activities comprised 23.7%, 21.1%, and 12.5% of scheduled medication, documentation, and monitoring and measurement, respectively. Among these activities, nurses mostly carry out scheduled medication, monitoring, and measurement together. Three themes emerged in the FGIs: "Being involved in every little task regarding patient care," "Getting swamped by the complexity of symptoms and problems of the patients at a given time," and "Getting interrupted at work too often." Nurses performed multiple activities while cooperating with other healthcare providers and providing care to patients. It is important to create an environment where nurses can focus on essential nursing activities to improve patient safety.

Urban Park Lighting Quality Perception: An Immersive Virtual Reality Experiment

Green areas and parks are increasingly important in improving citizens’ physical and mental recovery. Lighting systems play a considerable role in affecting city park life and activities along with people’s moods and behavior in the evening and at night. Immersive virtual reality laboratory experiments may support urban and lighting research by providing information on the combination of lighting setup and visual context of existing or new urban parks. Gaze behaviors obtained from eye-tracking recordings and self-reported measurements using the perceived outdoor lighting quality questionnaire were used to determine the factors affecting human perception, comfort, and cognitive load, as the overall illuminance levels of the scene and correlated color temperature changes. Results pointed out that overall illuminance level and CCT significantly affect the perceived strength and comfort qualities of lighting with a dominance of the first compared with the latter when subjects were free to explore the lit environment. Low CCT and intermediate or high overall illuminance levels can improve the sense of accessibility as well as minimize the cognitive load.

Comparing Perceptual Effects of Perspectival Convergence in Architectural Images

Abstract This paper examines the correlation between vertical perspectival convergences in architectural images and their perception by monitoring the eye movements of subjects using eye tracking. Participants viewed images of buildings rendered in one of two variants, either with parallel or convergent vertical lines. In order to quantify differences of perception, a number of analyses were conducted, including density-based cluster analysis to determine areas of heightened visual regard, Voronoi subdivision which allowed for comparison of overall fixation areas, comparisons of fixation durations, image preference tests, and verbal comparisons. Eye-tracking recordings were analyzed in the aggregate in order to examine cumulative viewing behaviors. The study found that while differences in viewing behavior were evident within discrete image counterparts and various forms of analyses, perceptual trends regularly converged toward an even balance across testing stimuli. Attentional propensities tended to be guided by image features over the effects of mere perspectival registration.