Eye-tracking Glasses Research Articles

VISUAL ATTENTION ALLOCATION AND FIXATION TRANSACTIONS IN READING PRIMARY SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE

Primary Scientific Literature (PSL) significantly contributes to cultivating students' scientific literacy. However, students' visual strategies while reading PSL remain unclear. This study utilized eye-tracking technology to clarify students' visual attention allocation and fixation transactions during PSL reading, and explored their associations with students' self-reported reading strategy levels and reading outcomes. Thirty-eight undergraduate students majoring in biology (22 females and 16 males) participated in the study. They wore eye-tracking glasses while reading a PSL that included sections like abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion, and reference. Participants also completed a Primary Scientific Literature Strategies Assessment and a post-reading exam. The study demonstrated that reading time and fixation count on the results page were positively correlated with self-reported PSL reading strategy scores and reading outcomes. The reading time and fixation count on the methods page are positively correlated with self-reported PSL reading strategy score. Moreover, the higher group showed significantly greater attention to results compared to the lower group. The higher group exhibited significant interaction between texts and figures in fixation transactions within the results, whereas this interaction was absent in the lower group. The research provided recommendations for educators to enhance students' PSL reading strategies and abilities. Keywords: primary scientific literature, reading strategy, eye-tracking, science education

Color Vision Deficiency Recognition Based on Eye-Tracking Metrics Using Machine Learning Approaches

Individuals with color vision deficiency (CVD) face many difficulties and limitations in their daily lives and professional activities, some of which may prove life-threatening. These negative factors necessitate the development of methods for the identification and classification of CVD. Because CVD is a vision impairment, it is crucial to determine if its presence can be predicted with eye behavior. An experiment was conducted using a driving simulator and eye-tracking glasses. The experiment included 27 people with CVD (12 with deuteranopia, 9 with deuteranomaly, 3 with protanopia, and 3 with protanomaly) and 10 people with normal color vision. Each participant performed multiple driving attempts with color-coded guidelines on the navigator to assess visual search ability. Based on data recorded by an eye tracker, the following three types of cross-validated models were developed: binary classification (presence and absence of CVD), a three-class model to recognize the absence of CVD, protanopia, and deuteranopia, and a five-class model to predict the absence of CVD, deuteranopia, deuteranomaly, protanopia, and protanomaly. These three models yielded respective accuracy levels of over 95%, 66%–78%, and 43%–52%. Overall, it was found that eye-tracking metrics have the potential to classify and predict CVD.

Using mobile eye-tracking to evaluate gaze behavior during a speech in pediatric anxiety disorders

BackgroundAltered gaze in social settings is a hallmark of social anxiety; however, little research directly examines gaze in anxiety-provoking contexts among youth with anxiety disorders, limiting mechanistic insight into pediatric anxiety. The present study leveraged mobile eye-tracking technology to examine gaze behavior during a naturalistic stressor in a clinical developmental sample. MethodsSixty-one youth (ages 8–17 years; 28 with anxiety disorders, 33 non-anxious controls) completed a naturalistic social stress task (public speaking in front of a videotaped classroom audience) while wearing eye-tracking glasses. Gaze behavior and state anxiety were quantified in each group during two task conditions: while giving a speech and while passively viewing the audience. ResultsAnxiety-related differences emerged in state anxiety and gaze behavior. First, a significant interaction between diagnostic group and task condition on state anxiety indicated that while anxiety increased among non-anxious controls following the speech, youth with anxiety disorders reported persistently elevated anxiety across all assessments. Second, a significant interaction emerged between social anxiety symptom severity and task condition on gaze time on the audience. While youth overall showed low dwell time on the audience during speech delivery, individuals with greater social anxiety showed longer gaze on the audience during the passive viewing condition. This pattern was specific to dimensional analyses of social anxiety symptom severity. LimitationsThe current study was not sufficiently powered to examine age-related differences. ConclusionsThese findings highlight anxiety-related differences in gaze behavior in youth, providing new mechanistic insight into pediatric anxiety using mobile eye-tracking.

Towards Automatic Object Detection and Activity Recognition in Indoor Climbing

Rock climbing has propelled from niche sport to mainstream free-time activity and Olympic sport. Moreover, climbing can be studied as an example of a high-stakes perception-action task. However, understanding what constitutes an expert climber is not simple or straightforward. As a dynamic and high-risk activity, climbing requires a precise interplay between cognition, perception, and precise action execution. While prior research has predominantly focused on the movement aspect of climbing (i.e., skeletal posture and individual limb movements), recent studies have also examined the climber’s visual attention and its links to their performance. To associate the climber’s attention with their actions, however, has traditionally required frame-by-frame manual coding of the recorded eye-tracking videos. To overcome this challenge and automatically contextualize the analysis of eye movements in indoor climbing, we present deep learning-driven (YOLOv5) hold detection that facilitates automatic grasp recognition. To demonstrate the framework, we examined the expert climber’s eye movements and egocentric perspective acquired from eye-tracking glasses (SMI and Tobii Glasses 2). Using the framework, we observed that the expert climber’s grasping duration was positively correlated with total fixation duration (r = 0.807) and fixation count (r = 0.864); however, it was negatively correlated with the fixation rate (r = −0.402) and saccade rate (r = −0.344). The findings indicate the moments of cognitive processing and visual search that occurred during decision making and route prospecting. Our work contributes to research on eye–body performance and coordination in high-stakes contexts, and informs the sport science and expands the applications, e.g., in training optimization, injury prevention, and coaching.

Better understanding fall risk: AI-based computer vision for contextual gait assessment

Contemporary research to better understand free-living fall risk assessment in Parkinson's disease (PD) often relies on the use of wearable inertial-based measurement units (IMUs) to quantify useful temporal and spatial gait characteristics (e.g., step time, step length). Although use of IMUs is useful to understand some intrinsic PD fall-risk factors, their use alone is limited as they do not provide information on extrinsic factors (e.g., obstacles). Here, we update on the use of ergonomic wearable video-based eye-tracking glasses coupled with AI-based computer vision methodologies to provide information efficiently and ethically in free-living home-based environments to better understand IMU-based data in a small group of people with PD. The use of video and AI within PD research can be seen as an evolutionary step to improve methods to understand fall risk more comprehensively.

Neuroemotions and Behavior in the Purchase Process

Emotions are the fundamental pillar of neuromarketing, the perception of hedonic, utilitarian value, the emotions experienced by customers during the buying process and the effect the behavior of each stage is seen from the brain structures of the mind. The sample selected for the study was 354 real customers of supermarkets in the city of Riobamba and the sample of 8 participants with the use of eye tracking glasses in the store tour during this process. The results, in three stages of the process system (inputs, processes and results) with the emotions involved in each stage. Stage I are: uncertainty, joy, anger/anger/anxiety, happiness, curiosity. The emotions in stages II and III are joy, surprise, satisfaction, security, and confidence and the emotions felt in the Evaluation Stage are satisfaction, exhaustion, demotivation, joy, and anger/anger/anxiety. There are hormones and neurotransmitters that are involved with emotions at different stages of the buying process. The right brain hemispheres are activated in negative emotions, left in positive emotions in all stages of the buying process. Brain structures are also activated at each stage of the buying process. The results of the Eye tracking in the comparative analysis analyzed Meditation, Attention and Blinking in the stages of the purchase process. It is concluded that repurchase and recommendation intentions are determined by positive emotions which, in turn, are determined by the hedonic and utilitarian value of the product and services that reduce negative emotions.

Assessment of Visual Attention in Teams with or without Dedicated Team Leaders: A Neonatal Simulation-Based Pilot Randomised Cross-Over Trial Utilising Low-Cost Eye-Tracking Technology.

Eye-tracking technology could be used to study human factors during teamwork. This work aimed to compare the visual attention (VA) of a team member acting as both a team leader and managing the airway, compared to a team member performing the focused task of managing the airway in the presence of a dedicated team leader. This work also aimed to report differences in team performance, behavioural skills, and workload between the two groups using validated tools. We conducted a simulation-based, pilot randomised controlled study. The participants included were volunteer paediatric trainees, nurse practitioners, and neonatal nurses. Three teams consisting of four team members were formed. Each team participated in two identical neonatal resuscitation simulation scenarios in a random order, once with and once without a team leader. Using a commercially available eye-tracking device, we analysed VA regarding attention to (1) a manikin, (2) a colleague, and (3) a monitor. Only the trainee who was the airway operator would wear eye-tracking glasses in both simulations. In total, 6 simulation scenarios and 24 individual role allocations were analysed. Participants in a no-team-leader capacity had a greater number of total fixations on manikin and monitors, though this was not significant. There were no significant differences in team performance, behavioural skills, and individual workload. Physical demand was reported as significantly higher by participants in the group without a team leader. During debriefing, all the teams expressed their preference for having a dedicated team leader. In our pilot study using low-cost technology, we could not demonstrate the difference in VA with the presence of a team leader.

Using Video Technology and AI within Parkinson's Disease Free-Living Fall Risk Assessment.

Falls are a major concern for people with Parkinson's disease (PwPD), but accurately assessing real-world fall risk beyond the clinic is challenging. Contemporary technologies could enable the capture of objective and high-resolution data to better inform fall risk through measurement of everyday factors (e.g., obstacles) that contribute to falls. Wearable inertial measurement units (IMUs) capture objective high-resolution walking/gait data in all environments but are limited by not providing absolute clarity on contextual information (i.e., obstacles) that could greatly influence how gait is interpreted. Video-based data could compliment IMU-based data for a comprehensive free-living fall risk assessment. The objective of this study was twofold. First, pilot work was conducted to propose a novel artificial intelligence (AI) algorithm for use with wearable video-based eye-tracking glasses to compliment IMU gait data in order to better inform free-living fall risk in PwPD. The suggested approach (based on a fine-tuned You Only Look Once version 8 (YOLOv8) object detection algorithm) can accurately detect and contextualize objects (mAP50 = 0.81) in the environment while also providing insights into where the PwPD is looking, which could better inform fall risk. Second, we investigated the perceptions of PwPD via a focus group discussion regarding the adoption of video technologies and AI during their everyday lives to better inform their own fall risk. This second aspect of the study is important as, traditionally, there may be clinical and patient apprehension due to ethical and privacy concerns on the use of wearable cameras to capture real-world video. Thematic content analysis was used to analyse transcripts and develop core themes and categories. Here, PwPD agreed on ergonomically designed wearable video-based glasses as an optimal mode of video data capture, ensuring discreteness and negating any public stigma on the use of research-style equipment. PwPD also emphasized the need for control in AI-assisted data processing to uphold privacy, which could overcome concerns with the adoption of video to better inform IMU-based gait and free-living fall risk. Contemporary technologies (wearable video glasses and AI) can provide a holistic approach to fall risk that PwPD recognise as helpful and safe to use.

With sensitive eyes: ECEC teachers’ visual gaze and related reflections on pedagogical actions in toddler groups using eye-tracking glasses

This study explored early childhood education and care (ECEC) teachers’ visual gaze and related reflections on pedagogical actions during pedagogical activities in groups of children under three years of age in Finland. The data were collected from play and teacher-guided activities using mobile eye-tracking glasses, the retrospective thinking aloud (RTA) method, and semi-structured interviews. The results showed that even though the teachers were surprised about some aspects of the visual gaze metrics, they reflected on and gave reasons for their visual gazes on children. When observing gaze data from play, teachers explained the high amount of gaze by citing children’s particular needs. When observing gaze data from guided activities, teachers reflected on children’s unpredictable behavior and noted that the children’s need for support in concentration was linked to more gazes by the teacher. The findings showed that both during play and guided activities, children seeking a gaze and the position of children in the classroom influenced the number of teachers’ gazes. In the teachers’ explanations of their visual gaze and related pedagogical actions, five categories were identified: protection; physical and emotional availability, teaching and learning; facilitation; and initiatives. This explorative study showed that teachers utilize their knowledge concerning children’s individuality, development, and learning when they explain their decisions concerning their visual gaze and pedagogical activities with toddlers. The use of mobile eye-tracking technology is relatively new; therefore, its applications to ECEC are pioneering for the development of the field in relation to the practices and research of toddlers’ groups and groups with older children in ECEC

Gaze behavior reveals automaticity and attention allocation during music teaching vs. observing.

In a unique case-study approach in which I served as both the research participant and the experimenter, I wore eye-tracking glasses while teaching a brief music lesson to two university students learning trumpet, then approximately two weeks later, I watched a video of the lesson and tracked my gaze again. To investigate unconscious perceptual processes engaged during music teaching, I compared my attention allocation while teaching to my attention allocation during selfobservation. My gaze behavior while teaching revealed a high level of automaticity regarding lesson sequencing and allocation of attention. Strategic moment-to-moment shifts in attention between the two students occurred entirely below my conscious awareness, yet post hoc analyses revealed precisely timed changes that were related to momentary goals. While watching the video, absent the demands of behavioral interaction and momentary decision-making, I directed more sustained attention to both students than I had while teaching. These results reveal important features of "teacher thinking" that are not directly observable or typically construed as conscious behavior. That this component of teaching practice does not involve volitional control suggests that teachers' descriptions of their thinking may not reveal to novices important elements of pedagogical expertise.

Eye-Tracking for Examining Nurses’ Attention During Cardiac Arrest Simulations: A Feasibility and Acceptability Study

<p>Introduction: Eye-tracking offers a distinctive opportunity to assess nurses’ clinical decision-making in simulation. Although its feasibility has been established in various scenarios, most studies have focused on a single participant, typically a physician in a leadership role. The application of eye-tracking in the challenging context of in-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA) simulations, where nurses juggle diverse roles and undertake physical tasks such as chest compressions, has yet to be explored.</p><p>Objectives: This study aimed to assess the feasibility and acceptability of eye-tracking with nurses’ during IHCA simulations. Additionally, the study aimed to describe eye-tracking metrics based on different resuscitation roles and to explore the relationship between eye-tracking metrics to pinpoint the most informative metrics for the design of future studies.</p><p>Methods: In this single-group observational study, 56 newly hired nurses wore eye-tracking glasses during IHCA simulations. The primary feasibility criterion was the proportion of usable eye-tracking data. Secondary criteria included recruitment rate, calibration time, and glasses acceptability. The relationship among eye-tracking metrics was investigated through correlation analyses.</p><p>Results: Calibration of the devices was rapid, and 85.7% of the data was usable. The glasses were comfortable, non-distracting, and did not impede nurses’ vision or performance. Data were mapped for five areas of interest: the patient’s head and chest, cardiac monitor, teammates, and resuscitation cart. Eye-tracking metrics exhibited variations based on resuscitation roles. Fixation count, fixation duration, and time to first fixation appeared to be the most informative metrics in IHCA simulation.</p><p>Discussion and conclusion: These findings demonstrate the feasibility and acceptability of analyzing nurses’ eye-tracking data during IHCA simulations using a role-based approach. Future research should explore correlations with additional attention measures to enhance our understanding of nurse decision-making during cardiac arrest and improve educational strategies and outcomes.</p>

Eye-controlled endoscopy — a benchtop trial of a novel robotic steering platform — iGAZE2

The endoscopic control system has remained similar in design for many decades The remit of advanced therapeutic endoscopy continues to expand requiring precision control and high cognitive workloads. Robotic systems are emerging, but all still require bimanual control and expensive and large new systems. Eye tracking is an exciting area that can be used as an endoscope control system. This is a study to establish the feasibility of an eye-controlled endoscope and compare its performance and cognitive demand to use of a conventional endoscope. An eye gaze-control system consisting of eye-tracking glasses, customised software and a small motor unit was built and attached to a conventional endoscope. Twelve non-endoscopists used both the eye gaze system and a conventional endoscope to complete a benchtop task in a simulated oesophagus and stomach. Completion of tasks was timed. Subjective feedback was collected from each participant on task load using the NASA Task Load Index. Participants were significantly quicker completing the task using iGAZE2 vs a conventional endoscope (65.02 ± 16.34s vs 104.21 ± 51.31s, p = 0.013) Participants were also significantly quicker completing retroflexion using iGAZE2 vs a conventional endoscope (8.48 ± 3.08 vs 11.38 ± 5.36s, p = 0.036). Participants reported a significantly lower workload (raw NASA-TLX score) when using iGAZE2 vs the conventional endoscope (152.1 ± 63.4 vs 319.6 ± 81.6, p = 0.0001) (Fig. 7). Users found iGAZE2 to have a significantly lower temporal demand, mental demand, effort, mental demand, physical demand, and frustration level. The eye gaze system is an exciting, small, and retrofittable system to any endoscope. The system shows exciting potential as a novel endoscopic control system with a significantly lower workload and better performance in novices suggesting a more intuitive control system.

Enhancing fall risk assessment: instrumenting vision with deep learning during walks

BackgroundFalls are common in a range of clinical cohorts, where routine risk assessment often comprises subjective visual observation only. Typically, observational assessment involves evaluation of an individual’s gait during scripted walking protocols within a lab to identify deficits that potentially increase fall risk, but subtle deficits may not be (readily) observable. Therefore, objective approaches (e.g., inertial measurement units, IMUs) are useful for quantifying high resolution gait characteristics, enabling more informed fall risk assessment by capturing subtle deficits. However, IMU-based gait instrumentation alone is limited, failing to consider participant behaviour and details within the environment (e.g., obstacles). Video-based eye-tracking glasses may provide additional insight to fall risk, clarifying how people traverse environments based on head and eye movements. Recording head and eye movements can provide insights into how the allocation of visual attention to environmental stimuli influences successful navigation around obstacles. Yet, manual review of video data to evaluate head and eye movements is time-consuming and subjective. An automated approach is needed but none currently exists. This paper proposes a deep learning-based object detection algorithm (VARFA) to instrument vision and video data during walks, complementing instrumented gait.MethodThe approach automatically labels video data captured in a gait lab to assess visual attention and details of the environment. The proposed algorithm uses a YoloV8 model trained on with a novel lab-based dataset.ResultsVARFA achieved excellent evaluation metrics (0.93 mAP50), identifying, and localizing static objects (e.g., obstacles in the walking path) with an average accuracy of 93%. Similarly, a U-NET based track/path segmentation model achieved good metrics (IoU 0.82), suggesting that the predicted tracks (i.e., walking paths) align closely with the actual track, with an overlap of 82%. Notably, both models achieved these metrics while processing at real-time speeds, demonstrating efficiency and effectiveness for pragmatic applications.ConclusionThe instrumented approach improves the efficiency and accuracy of fall risk assessment by evaluating the visual allocation of attention (i.e., information about when and where a person is attending) during navigation, improving the breadth of instrumentation in this area. Use of VARFA to instrument vision could be used to better inform fall risk assessment by providing behaviour and context data to complement instrumented e.g., IMU data during gait tasks. That may have notable (e.g., personalized) rehabilitation implications across a wide range of clinical cohorts where poor gait and increased fall risk are common.

Influence of Material and Decoration on Design Style, Aesthetic Performance, and Visual Attention in Chinese-Style Chairs

Abstract Chinese-style chairs are appreciated by many consumers for their elegant design. The material and decoration have a significant impact on the design of Chinese-style chairs. Exploring the influence of these two factors on design styles and aesthetic expressions, as well as the related visual attention patterns, is of great importance for the design of Chinese-style chairs. This study aimed to investigate the impact of material (wood/metal) and decoration (pattern/no pattern) on the design style, aesthetic performance, and visual attention patterns of Chinese-style chairs. Fifty-six Chinese university students wore eye-tracking glasses to view four types of chair designs and completed subjective rating scales. The results show that material and decoration have both independent and interactive effects. Wood chairs exhibit a traditional design style and superior aesthetic performance compared to metal chairs. Traditional Chinese patterns enhance design style and aesthetic performance, particularly when applied to wooden chairs. Visual attention was not significantly different across chair designs, except for wooden chairs with traditional patterns on the backrest, which attracted more attention. These research findings provide reference for designers to design Chinese-style chairs.

What Eyeblinks Reveal: Interpersonal Synchronization in Dyadic Interaction

This study examines eyeblink synchronization in interactions characterized by mutual gaze without task-related or conversational elements that can trigger similarities in visual, auditory, or cognitive processing. We developed a study design capable of isolating the role of gaze in human-human interaction and observed the blinking behavior of dyads with mobile eye tracking glasses under three conditions: face-to-face mutual gaze, mediated mutual gaze through a mirror, and self-directed gaze in a mirror. The results revealed that when the interaction was through direct mutual gaze, eyeblink synchronization increased concurrently with a more structured temporal pattern. Also, the sense of connection between partners mimicked the synchronization. These findings suggest that even minor deviations caused by mediated interaction lead to reduced synchronization and a weakened sense of connection among partners. The paper also discusses the need for methodologies to enhance the efficacy and authenticity of online environments and human-robot interaction.

Exploring seafood choices at the point of purchase among a sample of Swedish consumers

PurposeSeafood consumption in Sweden is below the national recommendations and limited to very few species. This study aims to explore the factors shaping seafood choices at the point of purchase among a sample of current consumers in Sweden, and examines their attitudes regarding seafood consumption more broadly.Design/methodology/approachConvenience sampling was used to recruit consumers planning to purchase seafood at a supermarket in Sweden. Participants’ shopping trip was recorded using wearable eye tracking glasses and, upon completion, semi-structured interviews were conducted using a cued retrospective think aloud method. This exploratory study integrates qualitative data (N = 39) with eye tracking data (N = 34), to explore how seafood choices unfold when consumers purchase at the point of purchase.FindingsPurchases were mostly restricted to familiar seafood species. Four interlinked main themes were identified from thematic analysis of the interview data: Ambivalence, Nice and Necessary, Proficiency with Seafood and External Influences. Sustainability information (e.g. certifications) faced strong competition from other visual elements at the point of purchase, receiving less attention than product imagery and pricing information.Originality/valueThis study is the first to explore the factors shaping seafood choices of current consumers at the point of purchase. The unique approach, combining explicit and implicit measures, enriches understanding of the factors influencing seafood choices and how these may interrelate. The results are valuable for the industry and contribute to the literature by identifying possible routes to improve seafood sustainability communication.

Investigating effect of standardized total body skin examination using sequence-networks

This study employs sequence-network analysis to investigate the influence of instructing a standardized procedure on total-body skin examination (TBSE) performance. A between-subjects study was conducted with thirty-one participants comprising medical students and attending physicians. Among these participants, fifteen were randomly assigned to the uninstructed group and sixteen to the instructed group. The participants' gaze and field of view were recorded using eye tracking glasses while performing TBSE on a male and a female standardized patient. The recordings were then transcribed to depict the examination process. The instructed group missed significantly fewer body parts (p = 0.045) and had higher time efficiency (p = 0.007) while examining the female patient, but no significant difference was observed for the male patient examination. Furthermore, the examination sequences of the instructed group contained lesser variability than the uninstructed group. Hence, implementing a standard optimal procedure to perform TBSE could minimize the likelihood of missing body parts, increase examination efficiency, and improve performance consistency. This study demonstrated the potential of sequence-network analysis to study human performance in sequential tasks.

Improving the Temporal Accuracy of Eye Gaze Tracking for the da Vinci Surgical System through Automatic Detection of Decalibration Events and Recalibration

Robust and accurate eye gaze tracking can advance medical telerobotics by providing complementary data for surgical training, interactive instrument control, and augmented human–robot interactions. However, current gaze tracking solutions for systems such as the da Vinci Surgical System (dVSS) are limited to complex hardware installations. Additionally, existing methods do not account for operator head movement inside the surgeon console, invalidating the original calibration. This work provides an initial solution to these challenges that can seamlessly integrate into console devices beyond the dVSS. Our approach relies on simple and unobtrusive wearable eye tracking glasses and provides calibration routines that can contend with operator-head movements. An external camera measures movement of the glasses through trackers mounted on the glasses to detect invalidation of the prior calibration from head movement and slippage. Movements beyond a threshold of 5 cm or 9ˆ∘ prompt another calibration sequence. In a study where users moved freely in the surgeon console after an initial calibration procedure, we show that our system tracks the eye tracking glasses to initiate recalibration procedures. Recalibration can reduce the mean tracking error up to 89% compared to the current prevailing approach which relies on the initial calibration only. This work is an important first step towards incorporating user movement into gaze-based applications for the dVSS.

Cookie cravings – Examining the impact of sugar content information on Christmas treat preferences via mobile eye-tracking

BackgroundDiets high in added sugar can promote the development of overweight. Especially during the Holiday season, when high-sugar food is abundant, people overeat and gain more weight than during other times of the year. The present study with mobile eye-tracking glasses (Pupil Labs Invisible) investigated how sugar content information affects food preference (liking/wanting) and visual attention (where and how long one is looking) in a buffet-like situation. MethodsFifty-eight participants who were well acquainted with the local Christmas traditions and foods (38 female, 19 male, one diverse; mean age = 25 years, SD = 6.3 years; mean body mass index = 22.2 kg/m2, SD = 3.2 kg/m2) were presented with four cookies and two non-food items (wrapped presents) in a free viewing task. Two of the displayed cookies were ‘Christmas cookies’ (cookies that are traditionally eaten only during the Holiday season) and two cookies had no Christmas association. The cookies were either labeled as cookies made with or without sugar, resulting in a 3 (Category: cookies with sugar, cookies without sugar, non-food) by 2 (Christmas association: yes, no) repeated-measures design. ResultsAnalyses of variance indicated that participants reported higher wanting and liking for cookies with sugar, particularly Christmas cookies (interaction effect for wanting: p = .047, ηp2 = .059; interaction effect for liking: p = .017, ηp2 = .084). Sugar-free cookies were fixated more often (p = .028; d = 0.35) and shorter (p < .001; d = 0.64) than sugar cookies. ConclusionAssuming that cookies are sugar-free reduced the reported preference for this product, which was associated with a more detail-oriented (critical) viewing pattern. The study's findings have potential implications for public health and can aid in developing targeted interventions to promote healthier food choices during festive periods. The new strategies should not focus on the sugar content of foods.

Resistance exercising on unstable surface leads to Pupil Dilation

BackgroundChronic resistance training and acute resistance exercises improve physical performance and can enhance cognitive performance. However, there is still uncertainty about the mechanism(s) responsible for cognitive improvement following resistance training and exercise. Recent findings suggest that resistance exercise has metabolic as well as cognitive demands, which potentially activate similar neural circuitry associated with higher-order cognitive function tasks. Exercising on unstable devices increases the coordinative and metabolic demands and thus may further increase cognitive activation during resistance exercise. The measurement of pupil diameter could provide indications of cognitive activation and arousal during resistance exercise. Pupil dilation is linked to the activity in multiple neuromodulatory systems (e.g., activation of the locus coeruleus and the release of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (LC-NE system)), which are involved in supporting processes for executive control. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the cognitive activation measured by pupil diameter during an acute bout of resistance exercise on stable and unstable surfaces.Methods18 participants (23.5 ± 1.5 years; 10 females) performed ten kettlebell squats in a preferred repetition velocity in stable and unstable (BOSU® Balance Trainer) ground conditions. Pupil diameter was recorded with eye tracking glasses (SMI ETG) during standing (baseline) and during squatting. Raw pupil data were cleaned of artifacts (missing values were linearly interpolated) and subjected to a subtractive baseline correction. A student t-test was used to compare mean pupil diameter between ground conditions.ResultsThe mean pupil diameter was significantly greater during squats in the unstable condition than in the stable condition, t (17) = -2.63, p =.018, Cohen’s dZ = -0.62; stable: 0.49 ± 0.32 mm; unstable: 0.61 ± 0.25 mm).ConclusionAs indicated by pupil dilation, the use of unstable devices can increase the cognitive activation and effort during acute bouts of resistance exercise. Since pupil dilation is only an indirect method, further investigations are necessary to describe causes and effects of neuromodulatory system activity during resistance exercise. Resistance training with and without surface instability can be recommended to people of all ages as a physically and cognitively challenging training program contributing to the preservation of both physical and cognitive functioning.