Eye Tracking Analysis Research Articles

Inducing strategies to solve a mental rotation task is possible: evidence from a sex-related eye-tracking analysis

The study of spatial skills is gaining importance due to their relevance in everyday activities and their critical role in developing competencies across various academic disciplines. The main goal of this study was to explore whether mental rotation strategies, such as the so-called holistic –rotating an entire object- and piecemeal –rotating individual parts of the object- approaches, can be induced, and whether sex differences emerge during the process of strategy induction. This objective holds a pivotal role as it could lead to the enhancement of mental rotation abilities and the development of effective interventions. To achieve this, a mental rotation task was conducted while eye movements were recorded. In the first block, participants solved the task freely, while in the second block, they received instructions to solve it through either a holistic (42 participants) or a piecemeal (43 participants) strategy in a between-subjects design. In both strategies, participants showed better performance in the second block compared to the first. Males outperformed females. The holistic strategy resulted in faster reaction times in the second block. The number of fixations and saccadic movements decreased in the second block compared to the first for the holistic strategy, while the piecemeal strategy exhibited the opposite ocular pattern. These results indicate that effective mental rotation strategies were successfully elicited. No sex differences were found in the analyzed eye movement variables.

Eye-tracking analysis to assess the mental load of unmanned aerial system operators: systematic review and future directions

Abstract This article presents a systematic review on the use of eye-tracking technology to assess the mental workload of unmanned aircraft system (UAS) operators. With the increasing use of unmanned aircraft in military and civilian operations, understanding the mental workload of these operators has become essential for ensuring mission effectiveness and safety. The review covered 26 studies that explored the application of eye-tracking to capture nuances of visual attention and assess cognitive load in real-time. Traditional methods such as self-assessment questionnaires, although useful, showed limitations in terms of accuracy and objectivity, highlighting the need for advanced approaches like eye-tracking. By analysing gaze patterns in simulated environments that reproduce real challenges, it was possible to identify moments of higher mental workload, areas of concentration and sources of distraction. The review also discussed strategies for managing mental workload, including adaptive design of human-machine interfaces. The analysis of the studies revealed a growing relevance and acceptance of eye-tracking as a diagnostic and analytical tool, offering guidelines for the development of interfaces and training that dynamically respond to the cognitive needs of operators. It was concluded that eye-tracking technology can significantly contribute to the optimisation of UAS operations, enhancing both the safety and efficiency of military and civilian missions.

Driving Fatigue Onset and Visual Attention: An Electroencephalography-Driven Analysis of Ocular Behavior in a Driving Simulation Task.

Attentional deficits have tragic consequences on road safety. These deficits are not solely caused by distraction, since they can also arise from other mental impairments such as, most frequently, mental fatigue. Fatigue is among the most prevalent impairing conditions while driving, degrading drivers' cognitive and physical abilities. This issue is particularly relevant for professional drivers, who spend most of their time behind the wheel. While scientific literature already documented the behavioral effects of driving fatigue, most studies have focused on drivers under sleep deprivation or anyhow at severe fatigue degrees, since it is difficult to recognize the onset of fatigue. The present study employed an EEG-driven approach to detect early signs of fatigue in professional drivers during a simulated task, with the aim of studying visual attention as fatigue begins to set in. Short-range and long-range professional drivers were recruited to take part in a 45-min-long simulated driving experiment. Questionnaires were used to validate the experimental protocol. A previously validated EEG index, the MDrow, was adopted as the benchmark measure for identifying the "fatigued" spans. Results of the eye-tracking analysis showed that, when fatigued, professional drivers tended to focus on non-informative portions of the driving environment. This paper presents evidence that an EEG-driven approach can be used to detect the onset of fatigue while driving and to study the related visual attention patterns. It was found that the onset of fatigue did not differentially impact drivers depending on their professional activity (short- vs. long-range delivery).

Can Automobile Brands Optimize their Print Advertisements through Eye-Tracking Analysis?

Can Automobile Brands Optimize their Print Advertisements through Eye-Tracking Analysis?

Online Reviews Meet Visual Attention: A Study on Consumer Patterns in Advertising, Analyzing Customer Satisfaction, Visual Engagement, and Purchase Intention

This study aims to bridge the gap between traditional consumer behavior analysis and modern techniques by integrating big data analysis, eye-tracking technology, and survey methods. The researchers considered that understanding consumer behavior is crucial for creating effective advertisements in the digital age. Initially, a big data analysis was performed to identify significant clusters of consumer sentiment from online reviews generated during a recent seasonal promotional campaign. The key factors were identified and grouped into the “Product”, “Model”, “Promo”, and “Effect” categories. Using these clusters as a foundation, an eye-tracking analysis measured visual attention metrics such as the fixation duration and count to understand how the participants engaged with the different advertisement content. Subsequently, a survey assessed the same participants’ purchase intentions and preferences related to the identified clusters. The results showed that the sentiment clusters related to products, promotions, and effects positively impacted the customer satisfaction. The eye-tracking data revealed that advertisements featuring products and models garnered the most visual attention, while the survey results indicated that promotional content significantly influenced the purchase intentions. This multi-step approach delivers an in-depth understanding of the factors that affect customer satisfaction and decision-making, providing valuable information for optimizing marketing strategies in the Korean skincare market. The findings emphasize the importance of integrating consumer sentiment analysis with visual engagement metrics to develop more effective and compelling marketing campaigns.

Selection of optimal display color for China’s emergency management system using eye tracking

In recent years, eye-tracking analysis has been widely applied in both basic and applied research fields, yielding notable results. However, studies on specific scenarios, such as the display styles of emergency rescue platforms, are still lacking. China’s vast territory encompasses diverse climates and natural environments. To address the various environmental challenges, an emergency management digital twin system platform has been developed to enable real-time safety monitoring of key industries and high-risk areas for frequent accidents. However, the display style of the platform, particularly the color scheme, lacks uniformity. Currently, there are five different color themes widely used across various levels of the emergency management system: “Tech Style”, “Blue”, “Bright Blue”, “Transparent Gray” and “Green”. To explore the impact of color styles on information search efficiency in the existing emergency management platform, this study collects eye-tracking data from 10 participants while searching for information under five different color styles. The data are then subjected to feature extraction and statistical analysis in terms of time, frequency, and range. The statistical test results indicate that different color styles significantly affect the efficiency of information searches on the platform, and the analysis results are highly consistent with the findings of user studies. Research results indicate that the “Transparent Gray” theme outperforms the other themes in terms of search efficiency and user subjective evaluations, with the “Tech Style” theme following closely behind. This research is expected to provide a foundation for standardizing the color themes of China’s emergency management platform and contribute to the scientific and rational design of global emergency management platforms.

Eye-Tracking Analysis: Examining the Impact of Fan Culture and Entertainment News on Engagement with Social Justice Information

Celebrity culture and idolatry are prevalent nowadays. The development of online social media facilitates the distribution of entertainment news, fan culture has become increasingly prevalent. On the other hand, the extreme fan culture brought negative impacts to people which affects their psychological and physical status. This also leads to a negative stereotype of fan culture, i.e. addicted to entertainment news and not concern themselves of public affairs. This study aims to investigate the impact of fan culture on individuals’ attention to public affairs. Social justice news refers to news that reports and reveals inequality, injustice and oppression in society. Public attention to social justice news can help promote fairness and justice, social progress and change. This study utilized eye-tracking to collect data to investigate the effect of idolatry on social justice news attention. In the experiment, subjects were randomly divided into two groups; Group A subjects would view images of news web pages containing entertainment news and social justice news, while Group B subjects’ material consisted of social justice news and other types of news. Subjects were asked if they are a fan of any celebrity after the trial. The entire browsing process was recorded by an eye-tracker. The eye-tracking data revealed that, generally, people paid less attention to social justice news than to entertainment news and other unrelated topics. This is evidenced by shorter total fixation duration (TFD), fewer fixation counts (FC), and longer times to first fixation (TFF) for social justice news. Analysis of the two categories of subjects’ gender and whether or not they were stargazers revealed that, contrary to the stereotypes commonly perceived by the general public, fans and females would pay more attention to social justice information, exhibiting more TFD and FC. The present study’s use in this area of research. The public to abandon stereotypes and view fans and females in a fair and rational way. At the same time, the media should increase the exposure and weight of social justice news and direct viewers to pay more attention to social news.

Impact of the mini-map on the interpretation of spatial situations in the virtual geographical space of a video game

ABSTRACT Mini-map as a world map in miniature format is often used as the most important cartographic element to facilitate the navigation and orientation of users in virtual geographical space. It provides detailed information about the position, orientation, nearby objects or terrain around the user in a compact and comprehensive way. The authors of this article wanted to find out whether the mini-map helps users with different levels of knowledge about the game to understand and interpret spatial situations that occur when playing in the virtual geographical space. The study was conducted in the form of an offline survey that required respondents to watch five short videos depicting different spatial situations during the League of Legends game. The 60 respondents were divided into 3 different groups whose responses were analyzed using statistical tests and mini-map heatmap eye-tracking analysis. The results of the study confirm that there is a correlation between the mini-map and the correctness of the interpretation of spatial situations in the game in all groups investigated. Previous gaming experiences were found to reduce the need to use a mini-map to interpret spatial situations, proving that video games provide players with comprehensive information about various events on the user interface.

Eye-tracking analysis of attentional disengagement in phobic and non-phobic individuals.

This study investigated threat-related attention biases using a new visual search paradigm with eye tracking, which allows for measuring attentional disengagement in isolation. This is crucial as previous studies have been unable to distinguish between engagement, disengagement, and behavioral freezing. Thirty-three participants (Mage = 28.75 years, SD = 8.98; 21 women) with self-reported specific phobia (spiders, snakes, and pointed objects) and their matched controls (Mage = 28.38 years, SD = 8.66; 21 women) took part in the experiment. The participants were instructed to initially focus on a picture in the center of the screen, then search for a target picture in an outer circle consisting of six images, and respond via a button press whether the object in the target picture was oriented to the left or right. We found that phobic individuals show delayed disengagement and slower decision times compared with non-phobic individuals, regardless of whether the stimulus was threat-related or neutral. These results indicate that phobic individuals tend to exhibit poorer attentional control mechanisms and problems inhibiting irrelevant information. We also confirmed a threat-unrelated shared feature effect with complex stimuli (delayed disengagement when an attended stimulus and an unattended target share common stimulus features). This process might play a role in various experimental setups investigating attentional disengagement that has not yet been considered. These findings are important, as good attentional control may serve as a protective mechanism against anxiety disorders.

Role of inhibition in overcoming interferences of misconception under similar feature saliency: An eye-tracking study of the projectile motion problem

Misconceptions coexisting with scientific understanding pose significant challenges in physics education. Inhibitory control may enable individuals to overcome interference from misconceptions. However, discerning the role of inhibitory control becomes intricate when the saliency of scientific- and misconception-related features varies in a problem. This study investigates the role of inhibitory control in overcoming such misconceptions when scientific and misconception-related features are similarly salient, particularly focusing on the range-time (range determines flight time) misconception. We adopted a negative priming (NP) paradigm with the eye-tracking technique in the study. Thirty-six college physics majors participated in the experiment. In the NP paradigm, the participants first compared the flight times in a neutral (same range) or incongruent (longer range, less flight time) primes and then completed the same task in a congruent (longer range, more flight time) probe. Results revealed longer reaction times for incongruent primes compared to neutral primes and longer reaction times to respond to congruent probes following incongruent primes than when neutral primes were present beforehand, suggesting that the inhibitory control may be involved in overcoming the interference from the range-time misconception. Moreover, the eye-tracking analysis highlighted an early overt attention to the salient misconception-related feature (longer range) during primes, along with additional attentional investment necessary to inhibit the range-time misconception. During probes, an early shift of attention away from the salient misconception-related feature and a greater investment of attention on processing the congruent probes after the incongruent primes than that after the neutral primes were observed, indicating a possible effect of the previous inhibitory control in the primes on the subsequent cognitive process on the probes. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the cognitive process underlying physics conceptual change and provide insights into physics education. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

Cognitive evaluation based on regression and eye-tracking for layout on human–computer multi-interface

ABSTRACT The human–computer cooperation process guided by natural interaction, intelligent interaction, and human–computer integration is gradually becoming a new trend in human–computer interaction. Cooperative scenarios of human–computer interaction systems often contain multi-interface and multi-device results in edges often interrupt the cognitive ergonomics of interface layout. This research takes typical areas as an example to establish a stepwise regression model to predict reaction time at an arbitrary position on the left interface. It uses a foveal region to position the starting point of attention and a parafoveal region to calculate the radius of each objective area, and design 10 similar tasks to analyze eye-tracking indexes through physiological assessment. Unlike fixed thinking such as spatial proximity on multi-interfaces, this research summarises cognitive features of layout based on the positive and negative effects of edge impact through eye-tracking analysis. It analyzes cognition including input, process, and output in human–computer cooperation from human intelligence and artificial intelligence respectively, and visualises the mapping relationship between these indexes and specific stages of cognition. Besides, the quantitative evaluation of the regression equation and qualitative analysis of the eye-tracking indexes provide a reference for other interfaces around the front interface.

Flashlight model: Integrating attention distribution and attention resources for pilots’ visual behaviour analysis and performance prediction

Pilot performance is almost the last line of defense in aircraft safety. Recent years have seen a surge in research aimed at utilizing eye-tracking technology to predict pilot performance, enhancing aviation safety margins. A decline in pilot performance is often attributed to either misdirected attention towards irrelevant tasks or inefficient information processing owing to limited attention resources. Previous research has shown that eye-tracking data can effectively capture these issues and provide accurate performance predictions. Nevertheless, the existing studies either focus on attention distribution or attention resources separately, neglecting the complex interactions between them. To address this gap, our study proposes a synthesized Flashlight model-based eye-tracking analysis for pilot performance prediction, integrating the two perspectives. Accordingly, the combined AOI-gaze metrics are proposed to offer a more nuanced analysis of information processing across specific Areas of Interest (AOIs), thereby enhancing the analysis of gaze metrics. We examined the efficacy of the combined AOI-gaze metrics in the Gradient-boosted decision trees(GBDT) model for pilot performance prediction and compared them with other widely used eye-tracking metrics in a simulated flight experiment case study. Moreover, we employed the SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) method to identify the most influential eye-tracking measurements for pilots’ performance prediction. The result demonstrated that the selected eye-tracking measurements obtained the highest accuracy in performance prediction.

Research on visual experience evaluation of fortress heritage landscape by integrating SBE–SD method and eye movement analysis

Urbanization has led to homogenizing heritage site landscapes, and the protective measures have become disconnected from public needs. Additionally, the complex and diverse overall characteristics of heritage sites and the uneven distribution of values across different areas are related to the lack of landscape experience assessment. The “subjective + objective” cognitive evaluation and visual perception framework that adopts the Scenic Beauty Estimation Procedure-Semantic Differential (SBE–SD) method and eye-tracking analysis can compensate for the limitations of a single evaluation method by integrating quantitative and qualitative analysis. This research takes the Yi’an Fortress in Zhangpu County, Fujian Province, as the object and examines the visual experiences of different areas and types of landscapes within the Yi’an Fortress. The findings reveal several key insights: (1) Significant differences were found in the landscape experiences of different areas within the heritage site. The visual experience score of the core building area of Yi’an Fortress is (1.01) > the heritage entrance area (0.897) > the residential area (0.841) > the natural ecological area (0.784), indicating that the natural ecological area should be the focus of future protection and development efforts, with a particular emphasis on enhancing the ‘landscape aesthetic’ and ‘landscape cultural’ aspects. (2) The landscape experience scores can be used to understand the reasons for the differences in participants’ experiences of different landscapes. The architectural heritage landscape of the Yi’an Fortress scored highest in the experience evaluation due to its superior performance in terms of ‘landscape form’ factors. The cultural decorative landscape scored next, while the garden greening landscape scored the lowest, due to their poorer performance in terms of ‘landscape form’ and ‘landscape aesthetics’. (3) The eye-tracking data was consistent with the results of the subjective evaluation, validating the “subjective + objective” cognitive evaluation and visual perception framework, employing the SBE–SD method and eye-tracking analysis is a scientific and effective method for assessing the visual experience of heritage landscapes. These results provide a scientific basis for the heritage planners and managers of the Yi’an fortress to improve the landscape environment, better meet public needs, and preserve the unique character of this vital cultural resource. Furthermore, this study offers a new research method and approach for the protection of other heritage landscapes.

Eye-Tracking Analyses of a Coach's Pointing Gestures Timed With Speech: Implications for Players' Recall of Basketball Tactical Instructions.

Coaches often use pointing gestures alongside their speech to reinforce their message and emphasize important concepts during instructional communications, but the impact of simultaneous pointing gestures and speech on learners' recall remains unclear. We used eye-tracking and recalled performance to investigate the impact of a coach's variously timed pointing gestures and speech on two groups of learners' (novices and experts) visual attention and recall of tactical instructions. Participants were 96 basketball players (48 novice and 48 expert) who attempted to recall instructions about the evolution of a basketball game system under two teaching conditions: speech accompanied by gestures and speech followed by gestures. Overall, the results showed that novice players benefited more from instructional speech accompanied by gestures than from speech followed by gestures alone. This was evidenced by their greater visual attention to the diagrams, demonstrated through a higher fixation count and decreased saccadic shifts between the coach and the diagrams. Additionally, they exhibited improved recall and experienced reduced mental effort, despite having the same fixation time on the diagrams and equivalent recall time. Conversely, experts benefited more from instructional speech followed by gestures, indicating an expertise reversal effect. These results suggest that coaches and educators may improve their tactical instructions by timing the pairing of their hand gestures and speech in relation to the learner's level of expertise.

Integrated Eye-Tracking Response Surface Analysis to Optimize the Design of Garden Landscapes

Gardens not only provide people with a place for leisure and relaxation, they also contribute to improving urban ecological environments and promoting social interactions and cohesion. Additionally, from a psychological perspective, gardens play a role in alleviating stress, enhancing happiness, and improving the quality of life. Current research on gardens has primarily employed methods such as questionnaire surveys, environmental psychology analyses, and eye-tracking analyses; however, comprehensive studies on the relationships between multiple factors and levels in garden designs are lacking. Here, we propose a response surface analysis approach based on eye-tracking technology for the design and optimization of gardens. Firstly, the impacts of different garden elements on visitors’ psychology and fixation counts were analyzed using environmental psychology and eye-tracking analyses. Subsequently, the optimal range of each garden feature was determined through single-factor experiments, followed by response surface analysis to obtain the optimal value for each element. The results revealed that changes in garden elements such as the greenery ratio, number of buildings, and water saturation significantly affected visitors’ psychology. The greenery ratio had a greater impact than the number of buildings, which in turn had a greater impact than water saturation. This study is the first to analyze the relationships between multiple garden elements. A strong relationship was found between the greenery ratio and the number of buildings, as well as between the number of buildings and water saturation, while the relationship between the greenery ratio and water saturation was weaker. This approach can not only optimize garden designs but can also be widely applied in fields such as urban planning and public space transformation to enhance visitors’ comfort and satisfaction with the environment and promote sustainable urban development.

Website usability testing of Corporate Fund “University Medical Center”: neuromarketing approach

Object: The purpose of the study is to identify the weaknesses of the “University Medical Center” website using both traditional marketing and innovative marketing techniques, including neuromarketing technologies. This will enable us to understand the extent to which the neuromarketing approach requires fewer financial resources. The conclusions and recommendations drawn from the study will provide the necessary information to enhance the functionality of the “University Medical Center” website. Methods: As a methodology in the usability testing study, a neuromarketing approach and a questionnaire were used. The Eye Tracking technology and the iMotions program were used in the research. Also, a questionnaire was compiled, which was conducted with respondents before and after the Eye Tracking analysis. Findings: Based on the experience gained during this research work, it can be concluded that the use of a mixed approach to marketing research is very effective. This method is more accurate than traditional research, but cheaper than neuromarketing. Conclusions: At the end of the study, it was concluded that innovative marketing, namely the use of a neuromarketing approach, requires fewer financial resources. Based on the results of the research, recommendations were formulated for positioning the Corporate Fund “University Medical Center” and recommendations for the website based on the research.

Exploring product style perception: A comparative eye-tracking analysis of users across varying levels of self-monitoring

Digital shopping applications and platforms offer consumers a numerous array of products with diverse styles and style attributes. Existing literature suggests that style preferences are determined by consumers’ genders, ages, education levels, and nationalities. In this study, we argue the feasibility and necessity of self-monitoring as an additional consumer variable impacting product style perception and preference through the utilization of eye-tracking technology. Three eye-movement experiments were conducted on forty-two participants (twenty males and twenty-two females; Age: M = 22.8, SD = 1.63). The results showed participants with higher levels of self-monitoring exhibited shorter total fixation durations and fewer fixation counts while examining images of watch product styles. In addition, gender exerted an interaction effect on self-monitoring’s impact, with female participants of high self-monitoring ability able to perceive differences in product styles more rapidly and with greater sensitivity. Overall, the results highlight the utility of self-monitoring as a research variable in product style perception investigations, as well as its implication for style intelligence classifiers, and style neuroimaging.

Where do ICU trainees really look? An eye-tracking analysis of gaze patterns during central venous catheter insertion

Background: There is limited knowledge about gaze patterns of intensive care unit (ICU) trainee doctors during the insertion of a central venous catheter (CVC). The primary objective of this study was to examine visual patterns exhibited by ICU trainee doctors during CVC insertion. Additionally, the study investigated whether differences in gaze patterns could be identified between more and less experienced trainee doctors. Methods: In a real-life, prospective observational study conducted at the interdisciplinary ICU at the University Hospital Zurich, Switzerland, ICU trainee doctors underwent eye-tracking during CVC insertion in a real ICU patient. Using mixed-effects model analyses, the primary outcomes were dwell time, first fixation duration, revisits, fixation count, and average fixation time on different areas of interest (AOI). Secondary outcomes were above eye-tracking outcome measures stratified according to experience level of participants. Results: Eighteen participants were included, of whom 10 were inexperienced and eight more experienced. Dwell time was highest for CVC preparation table ( p = 0.02), jugular vein on ultrasound image ( p < 0.001) and cervical puncture location ( p < 0.001). Concerning experience, dwell time and revisits on jugular vein on ultrasound image ( p = 0.02 and p = 0.04, respectively) and cervical puncture location ( p = 0.004 and p = 0.01, respectively) were decreased in more experienced ICU trainees. Conclusions: Various AOIs have distinct significance for ICU trainee doctors during CVC insertion. Experienced participants exhibited different gaze behavior, requiring less attention for preparation and handling tasks, emphasizing the importance of hand-eye coordination.

Effect of changes in surface visual properties of heat-treated wood on the psychological preference

Heat treatment of wood is an attractive, environmentally friendly modification, which can change surface visual properties of wood including color and grain, but it is unclear how heat-treated wood is perceived and evaluated compared with untreated wood. In this paper, Chinese fir was heat-treated at 160, 180, 200, or 220 °C for 2 or 4 h. The changes of wood surface color and grain contrast were measured. A subjective questionnaire and eye-tracking technology were used for psychological evaluation. The results showed that changes in the visual properties of heat-treated wood had a significant effect on psychological preference—heat-treated wood was generally more preferred than the untreated, particularly at 200 °C for 4 h. Grain contrast and hue played an important role in the preference for heat-treated wood. The preference gave people the positive psychological impression of warmth, weight, cost, prevalence, and comfort. Eye-tracking analysis showed that Chinese fir heat-treated at about 200 °C with high hue value and clear grain contrast was easier to gain more visual attention. The results would have a high technical reference value for the heat-treated wood in product visual design.

Evaluation of Cognition of Rural Public Space Based on Eye Tracking Analysis

Amid the current global trend toward urbanization, there is a growing need for an improved quality of life. While rural public spaces are essential components of community life, their design and planning have traditionally focused on material aspects, neglecting the spiritual well-being of rural residents. This study uses the public spaces of Huixingtou Village in Handan City, Hebei Province, China, as an example to investigate the impact of five key elements within rural public spaces (architecture, streets, greenery, nodes, and landmarks) on individual emotions and perceptions, exploring how these elements contribute to the satisfaction of individuals’ spiritual lives. Initially, we compared the disparities among these elements concerning perceptual dimensions (functionality, technology, and aesthetics) and emotional dimensions (sense of achievement, safety, and well-being). This analysis revealed significant variations in emotional and perceptual dimensions influenced by different rural public space elements. Subsequently, we examined the associations between these elements and objective physiological response data from participants, using eye-tracking technology to delve into the interplay between emotions and perceptions. The results indicate that distinct rural public space elements elicit specific emotional responses, with visual elements and features exerting a pronounced influence on emotional reactions. This in-depth analysis provides comprehensive recommendations for emotional design strategies. Ultimately, this study furnishes emotionally driven design strategies for rural public spaces based on objective data, offering practical guidance for sustainable development and the enhancement of rural public space quality. These findings have significant implications for creating more attractive, inclusive, and sustainable rural spatial environments, addressing the needs of individuals seeking a high and enhanced quality of life.