Extreme Ultraviolet Irradiance Research Articles

Nowcasting Solar EUV Irradiance With Photospheric Magnetic Fields and the Mg II Index

AbstractA new method to nowcast spectral irradiance in extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and far ultraviolet (FUV) bands is presented here, utilizing only solar photospheric magnetograms and the Mg II index (i.e., the core‐to‐wing ratio). The EUV and FUV modeling outlined here is a direct extension of the SIFT (Solar Indices Forecasting Tool) model, based on Henney et al. (2015, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014sw001118). SIFT estimates solar activity indices using the earth‐side solar photospheric magnetic field sums from global magnetic maps generated by the ADAPT (Air Force Data Assimilative Photospheric Flux Transport) model. Utilizing strong and weak magnetic field sums from ADAPT maps, Henney et al. (2015, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014sw001118) showed that EUV & FUV observations can also be well modeled using this technique. However, the original forecasting method required a recent observation of each SIFT model output to determine and apply a 0‐day offset. The new method described here expands the SIFT and ADAPT modeling to nowcast the observed Mg II index with a Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.982. By correlating the Mg II model‐observation difference with the model‐observation difference in the EUV & FUV channels, Mg II can be used to apply the 0‐day offset correction yielding improvements in modeling each of the 37 studied EUV & FUV bands. With daily global photospheric magnetic maps and Mg II index observations, this study provides an improved method of nowcasting EUV & FUV bands used to drive thermospheric and ionospheric modeling.

Energy Deposition into the Ionosphere during a Solar Flare with Extreme-ultraviolet Late Phase

Solar extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) irradiance is the dominant energy source for ionizing and heating the Earth’s upper atmosphere. It is common to assume that the spectra of different EUV lines have the same trend to fill the solar EUV irradiance gap for modeling purposes due to inadequate EUV irradiance measurements. However, the spectra across the EUV bands may not vary in the same trend. The flare radiation energy release in the EUV (10–120 nm) is about twice as much as X-rays (0.1–10 nm) during flare interval ∼03–06 UT on 2012 October 23. By assimilating the observed nonuniform varying, time-dependent, and high-resolution solar spectrum from the Solar Dynamics Observatory mission into the modeling framework, we provide the first direct evidence of nonuniform varying solar EUV fluxes during the solar flare EUV late phase (ELP) having appreciable effects on the dayside ionosphere. The total EUV radiation energy release (5.838 × 1028 erg) during the flare ELP is larger than that (5.698 × 1028 erg) during the flare main phase. The ELP of an X1.8-class solar flare on 2012 October 23 can increase the dayside ionospheric density at the subsolar point by ∼5 TECU and the ionospheric density enhancements extend from the bottom to the peak of the F2 region at low latitudes with relative changes ranging from ∼20% to ∼100%. Our results highlight the importance of incorporating a realistic, high spectral and temporal resolution solar irradiance spectrum into numerical models to capture the observed time-varying ionospheric response to solar flares.

Statistical Properties of Plateau‐Like Turbulence Spectra in the Martian Magnetosheath: MAVEN Observations

AbstractThe Martian magnetosheath provides us with a natural laboratory to study plasma turbulence in the presence of pickup ions and locally generated instabilities. Unlike the typical magnetic‐field spectra with a single spectral scaling at magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) scales in Earth's magnetosheath, the magnetic‐field spectra in the Martian magnetosheath during 4 years of Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN observations frequently present an additional spectral break‐point with a shallow slope at MHD scales which we define as a plateau‐like spectral feature. The average occurrence rate of plateau‐like magnetic‐field spectra is 56.6% of our measurement intervals. At moderate pick‐up angles, the occurrence rate increases to a maximum of ∼70.0%. Furthermore, we present a positive correlation with the local ion density and anti‐correlations with the local βi and the solar Extreme Ultra Violet irradiance. A similar occurrence rate in the quasi‐perpendicular and the quasi‐parallel magnetosheath (60.1% vs. 52.9%) indicates that the plateau‐like spectra are more likely formed locally than in the upstream solar wind. Our results suggest that energy injection from pickup ion driven micro‐instabilities, for example, in the form of proton cyclotron waves, has insufficient time to evolve into a fully developed cascade in such a confined space like the Martian magnetosheath.

Solar X-ray and EUV imager on board the FY-3E satellite

The solar X-ray and Extreme Ultraviolet Imager (X-EUVI), developed by the Changchun Institute of Optics, Fine Mechanics and Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CIOMP), is the first space-based solar X-ray and Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) imager of China loaded on the Fengyun-3E (FY-3E) satellite supported by the China Meteorological Administration (CMA) for solar observation. Since started work on July 11, 2021, X-EUVI has obtained many solar images. The instrument employs an innovative dual-band design to monitor a much larger temperature range on the Sun, which covers 0.6–8.0 nm in the X-ray region with six channels and 19.5 nm in the EUV region. X-EUVI has a field of view of 42′, an angular resolution of 2.5″ per pixel in the EUV band and an angular resolution of 4.1″ per pixel in the X-ray band. The instrument also includes an X-ray and EUV irradiance sensor (X-EUVS) with the same bands as its imaging optics, which measures the solar irradiance and regularly calibrates the solar images. The radiometric calibration of X-EUVS on the ground has been completed, with a calibration accuracy of 12%. X-EUVI is loaded on the FY-3E satellite and rotates relative to the Sun at a uniform rate. Flat-field calibration is conducted by utilizing successive rotation solar images. The agreement between preliminarily processed X-EUVI images and SDO/AIA and Hinode/XRT images indicates that X-EUVI and the data processing algorithm operate properly and that the data from X-EUVI can be applied to the space weather forecast system of CMA and scientific investigations on solar activity.

The dependence of Martian ion escape on solar EUV irradiance as observed by MAVEN

We analyze the planetary ion, solar wind, interplanetary magnetic field (IMF), and solar extreme ultraviolet (EUV) irradiance data from the NASA Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN (MAVEN) mission to quantify the variation in ion escape with solar EUV irradiance. With relatively strict constraints on the upstream solar wind and IMF conditions, we divide the planetary ion data into 4 subsets with different solar EUV conditions to estimate ion escape rates. The results show that the total ion escape rate may increase nonlinearly with solar EUV irradiance and eventually approach an asymptotic limit as EUV increases. Further analysis on different ion species, escape channels, and energy ranges show that the dependence on solar EUV varies between these different ion populations. We also find that the spatial distributions of ion density and velocity vary between high and low solar EUV conditions, which is likely caused by the variations of electromagnetic field distributions. These results suggest that as solar EUV controls the ion production and affects the ion distributions near Mars, it will in turn influence the electromagnetic field distributions and thus affect the acceleration of escaping ions. This feedback mechanism may limit the total ion escape rate as solar EUV increases under constrained solar wind and IMF conditions.

Energy dependent response of the dayside Martian ionospheric electrons to solar forcing

We study the response of Auger electrons, He-II photoelectrons, and thermal electrons in the dayside Martian ionosphere to the solar soft X-rays (SXR; 0.1–7 nm), 30.5 nm, and the extreme ultraviolet (EUV; 20–90 nm) irradiances, respectively. For this purpose, the suprathermal electron fluxes measured by the Solar Wind Electron Analyzer (SWEA) and densities of the thermal electrons measured by Langmuir Probe and Waves (LPW) instruments, both on the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) mission, have been used. The data used in the present study span from January 2015 (Martian Year (MY) 32, solar longitude, Ls = 263°) to December 2019 (MY 35, Ls = 110°), which falls in the declining phase of solar cycle 24. The solar irradiances are taken from the extreme ultraviolet monitor instrument on MAVEN and also from the Flare Irradiance Spectral Model for Mars. The results of the present study show that the fluxes of the suprathermal electrons and the densities of the thermal electrons are drastically reduced during solar minimum. The Auger electrons show a significant correlation and have an almost linear relationship with the SXR irradiance; both of which are independent of altitude. The response of the He-II photoelectrons to 30.5 nm solar irradiance deviates slightly from the linear relationship, particularly in the altitude range of 225–350 km and the solar zenith angle (SZA) range of 45°-65°. At these altitude and SZA ranges, the thermal electrons show a power law dependence on the EUV irradiance. The responses of the He-II photoelectrons and thermal electrons to their respective solar irradiances decrease on either side of the altitude and SZA range of maximum response (225–350 km and 45°-65°, respectively). The energy dependent response of the electrons to the solar irradiances and their altitude and SZA variation are explained by considering their dependence on electron temperature, and ionization and the neutral heating efficiencies. The responses of the He-II photoelectrons and thermal electrons to their respective solar irradiances decrease near the terminator.

Ionospheric photoelectrons: A lateral thinking approach

This paper presents a personal account of developments in the solution of two related problems that limited the accuracy of ionosphere calculations in the 1980s. The first problem concerns the model-data discrepancies in the ionosphere photoelectron flux spectrum. Early comparisons between measured and modeled data revealed discrepancies in magnitude and shape. A lateral thinking approach revealed that there were problems with two key photoelectron model inputs: namely, the electron impact cross-sections and the solar extreme ultraviolet irradiance. This work led to the development of a widely used EUVAC solar irradiance model for ionosphere electron density calculations. The second problem relates to the neutral winds that are crucial for modeling variations in the ionosphere ion and electron densities. There is a lack of thermosphere neutral wind data because they are difficult to measure. The winds determine the altitude at which the electron density peaks. An accurate solution to this problem was the development of an algorithm that assimilates the altitude of the peak electron density into ionosphere models. This technique works because the altitude of the peak density is very sensitive to variations in the neutral wind.

Origin of the Solar Rotation Harmonics Seen in the EUV and UV Irradiance

Long-term periodicities in the solar irradiance are often observed with periods proportional to the solar rotational period of 27 days. These periods are linked either to some internal mechanism in the Sun or said to be higher harmonics of the rotation without further discussion of their origin. In this article, the origin of the peaks in periodicities seen in the solar extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and ultraviolet (UV) irradiance around the 7, 9, and 14 days periods is discussed. Maps of the active regions and coronal holes are produced from six images per day using the Spatial Possibilistic Clustering Algorithm (SPoCA), a segmentation algorithm. Spectral irradiance at coronal, transition-region/chromospheric, and photospheric levels are extracted for each feature as well as for the full disk by applying the maps to full-disk images (at 19.3, 30.4, and 170 nm sampling in the corona/hot flare plasma, the chromosphere/transition region, and the photosphere, respectively) from the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) on board the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) from January 2011 to December 2018. The peaks in periodicities at 7, 9, and 14 days as well as the solar rotation around 27 days can be seen in almost all of the solar irradiance time series. The segmentation also provided time series of the active regions and coronal holes visible area (i.e. in the area observed in the AIA images, not corrected for the line-of-sight effect with respect to the solar surface), which also show similar peaks in periodicities, indicating that the periodicities are due to the change in area of the features on the solar disk rather than to their absolute irradiance. A simple model was created to reproduce the power spectral density of the area covered by active regions also showing the same peaks in periodicities. Segmentation of solar images allows us to determine that the peaks in periodicities seen in solar EUV/UV irradiance from a few days to a month are due to the change in area of the solar features, in particular, active regions, as they are the main contributors to the total full-disk irradiance variability. The higher harmonics of the solar rotation are caused by the clipping of the area signal as the regions rotate behind the solar limb.

Using Hilbert curves to organize, sample, and sonify solar data

How many ways can we explore the Sun? We have images in many wavelengths and squiggly lines of many parameters that we can use to characterize the Sun. We know that while the Sun is blindingly bright to the naked eye, it also has regions that are dark in some wavelengths of light. All of those classifications are based on vision. Hearing is another sense that can be used to explore solar data. Some data, such as the sunspot number or the extreme ultraviolet spectral irradiance, can be readily sonified by converting the data values to musical pitches. Images are more difficult. Using a raster scan algorithm to convert a full-disk image of the Sun to a stream of pixel values creates variations that are dominated by the pattern of moving on and off the limb of the Sun. A sonification of such a raster scan will contain discontinuities at the limbs that mask the information contained in the image. As an alternative, Hilbert curves are continuous space-filling curves that map a linear variable onto the two-dimensional coordinates of an image. We have investigated using Hilbert curves as a way to sample and analyze solar images. Reading the image along a Hilbert curve keeps most neighborhoods close together as the resolution (i.e., the order of the Hilbert curve) increases. It also removes most of the detector size periodicities and may reveal larger-scale features. We present several examples of sonified solar data, including sunspot number, extreme ultraviolet (EUV) spectral irradiances, an EUV image, and a sequence of EUV images during a filament eruption.

Quantifying Contributions of External Drivers to the Global Ionospheric State

AbstractTo advance our understanding of the global response of the ionospheric total electron content (TEC) to various external drivers, we apply entropy‐based information theory to quantify contributions of solar, interplanetary, and lower atmospheric drivers to the global ionospheric state described by the Global Ionospheric Map (GIM). By computing normalized transfer entropy on 18 years of GIM TEC, F10.7, solar wind, and lower atmospheric data, we obtain the predictive information transfer from the present drivers to the global ionospheric state at various future times. We find that the solar extreme ultraviolet (EUV) irradiance dominates the information transfer within 3 days into the future, while the lower atmospheric migrating tidal sources dominate beyond 3 days into the future. The maximum information transfer from individual drivers reveals the maximum contributions from the drivers to the global ionospheric state. Among all drivers considered, the lower atmospheric migrating tidal sources contribute most. The solar EUV irradiance and tropospheric deep convection are secondary drivers with comparable contributions at about half of the contribution from migrating tidal sources. The interplanetary driving contributes the least to the global ionospheric state during both geomagnetic storm and quiet time, even though the contribution from the interplanetary magnetic field can enhance four to six times during geomagnetic storm time than quiet time.

PROBA2 LYRA Occultations: Thermospheric Temperature and Composition, Sensitivity to EUV Forcing, and Comparisons With Mars

AbstractA method for retrieving temperature and composition from 150 to 350 km in Earth's thermosphere using total number density measurements made via extreme ultraviolet (EUV) solar occultations by the Project for OnBoard Autonomy 2/Large Yield Radiometer (PROBA2/LYRA) instrument is presented. Systematic and random uncertainties are calculated and found to be less than 5% for the temperature measurements and 5%–20% for the composition measurements. Regression coefficients relating both temperature and the [O]/[N2] abundance ratio with EUV irradiance at 150, 275, and 350 km are reported. Additionally, it is shown that the altitude where [O] equals [N2] decreases with increasing solar EUV irradiance, an effect attributed to thermal expansion. Temperatures from 2010 to 2017 are compared with estimates from the MSIS empirical model and show good agreement at the dawn terminator but LYRA is markedly cooler at the dusk terminator, with the MSIS‐LYRA temperature difference increasing with solar activity. Anthropogenic cooling can explain this discrepancy at periods of lower solar activity, but the divergence of temperature with increasing solar activity remains unexplained. LYRA measurements of the exospheric temperature sensitivity to EUV irradiance are compared with contemporaneous measurements made at Mars, showing that the exospheric temperature at Mars is approximately half as sensitive to EUV variability as that of Earth.

The Effects of Different Drivers on the Induced Martian Magnetosphere Boundary: A Case Study of September 2017

AbstractThe Magnetic Pileup Boundary or Induced Magnetosphere Boundary (IMB) has been an enigma in Mars aeronomy. Previously dubbed the planetopause, magnetopause, ion‐composition boundary, and protonopause, identification of this unique plasma region has been marked by difficulty. In this case study, we used data from the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN (MAVEN) mission to identify IMB crossings and configurations during the month of September 2017, with a particular focus on the September 10, 2017 solar events. It was concluded that the Interplanetary Coronal Mass Ejection had no statistically significant impact on the IMB standoff locations. This study also investigated the effects of upstream dynamic pressure, thermal pressure from the magnetosheath, magnetic pressure from the magnetic pileup region (MPR), thermal pressure associated with the ionosphere, and Extreme Ultraviolet irradiance on the IMB during September 2017. We have found that during the 163 IMB crossings, magnetic pressure in the MPR and thermal pressure in the ionosphere had the largest influence on the IMB standoff distance.

Solar Extreme Ultraviolet Irradiance Uncertainties for Planetary Studies

AbstractAccurate estimates of extreme ultraviolet (EUV) irradiance are needed in order to understand the dynamical, chemical, and plasma processes occurring in planetary upper and tenuous atmospheres. Most studies rely on irradiance measurements made at Earth, which are extrapolated to the location of interest. The Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) orbiter includes the Extreme Ultraviolet Monitor (EUVM) instrument to measure the solar EUV irradiance in situ at Mars, which is used in this study to quantify the error introduced when phase‐shifting EUV measurements from Earth to other locations in the solar system. The MAVEN/EUVM solar soft X‐Ray (SXR) and Lyman‐α measurements are compared with analogous measurements made from Earth to characterize the typical error introduced when phase‐shifting solar EUV irradiance measurements made from Earth to other points in the solar system according to the 27.27 day synodic solar rotation period. The phase‐shifting error, εps, measured at SXR and Lyman‐α wavelengths are extrapolated to the full EUV spectrum by assuming it is proportional to the variability that occurs over the 27‐day timescale of solar rotation. Values for εps as a function of wavelength are reported and used to find the typical error for estimates of photoionization frequencies of some major species found in planetary upper atmospheres. Measuring EUV irradiance in situ reduces the random uncertainty by approximately half of that expected from phase shifting irradiances to the point of interest from Earth. These findings indicate that estimates of EUV induced variability in planetary atmospheres are highly uncertain at timescales of ∼10 days for large phase angles.

Nowcast of an EUV dynamic spectrum during solar flares

In addition to X-rays, extreme ultraviolet (EUV) rays radiated from solar flares can cause serious problems, such as communication failures and satellite drag. Therefore, methods for forecasting EUV dynamic spectra during flares are urgently required. Recently, however, owing to the lack of instruments, EUV dynamic spectra have rarely been observed. Hence, we develop a new method that converts the soft X-ray light curve observed during large flare events into an EUV dynamic spectrum by using the Solar Dynamics Observatory/Atmospheric Imaging Assembly images, a numerical simulation, and atomic database. The simulation provides the solution for a coronal loop that is heated by a strong flare, and the atomic database calculates its dynamic spectrum, including X-ray and EUV irradiances. The coefficients needed for the conversion can be calculated by comparing the observed soft X-ray light curve with that of the simulation. We apply our new method to three flares that occurred in the active region 12673 on September 06, 2017. The results show similarities to those of the Flare Irradiance Spectral Model, and reconstruct some of the EUV peaks observed by the EUV Variability Experiment onboard the Solar Dynamics Observatory.

Multi‐instrumental Observations of the Quasi‐16‐Day Variations From the Lower Thermosphere to the Topside Ionosphere in the Low‐Latitude Eastern Asian Sector During the 2017 Sudden Stratospheric Warming Event

AbstractVariations of the low‐latitude ionosphere in the eastern Asian sector during the 2017 sudden stratospheric warming (SSW) were studied with multi‐instrumental observations that correspond to different altitudes. Specifically, the variations of the topside ionosphere as high as over 830 km were investigated with data from the Swarm B satellite (~500 km), the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program F15 satellite (~830 km), and the Meteorological Operational satellite‐A (~830 km). The main results are as follows. (1) Simultaneous variations were detected in the ionospheric parameters from the E region to the topside ionosphere around the first peak warming of the 2017 SSW. (2) These variations exhibited similar quasi‐16‐day (Q16D; ~14.5‐day) periods, and these periods were most significant just before the first peak warming. (3) These simultaneous Q16D variations were not due to the solar extreme ultraviolet irradiance or geomagnetic activities but were probably driven from below, by planetary waves or semidiurnal lunar tides that enhanced during the SSW. (4) The Q16D variation of the topside ionospheric electron density at ~830 km was probably driven not only by the upward mapping electric field modulated in the E region dynamo but also by the electric field modulated in the F region dynamo.

The Use of Monthly Mean Average for Investigating the Presence of Hysteresis and Long‐Term Trends in Ionospheric NmF2

AbstractYearly averaging is a basic preprocessing of ionospheric data to smooth out the short‐term, cyclic variations in the observations. However, we find that the use of yearly (running) average method probably leads to a biased evaluated relation between the ionospheric parameters (e.g., 2 peak electron density, ) and the solar extreme ultraviolet (EUV) irradiance. The bias is essentially related to the annual/seasonal variations of the ionosphere, which means that the ionospheric sensitivity to the solar EUV irradiance varies with season and the same solar input can produce different ionization levels in different months/seasons. The yearly method simply averages the observations of different seasons, leading to a biased yearly ‐EUV relation, which will further affect the estimation of the ionospheric hysteresis (different ‐EUV relation in the solar rising and declining phase). Also, the extraction of long‐term trends in the ionosphere will be more uncertain if using a regression approach based on the biased ‐EUV relation. In conclusion, we suggest to do the analysis month by month (using monthly average method) to properly deal with the annual/seasonal variations of the ionosphere, and to obtain accurate estimation of the hysteresis and long‐term trends. Though both the yearly and monthly methods were used in precedent works, the bias introduced by the yearly average method has not been fully recognized prior to this study.

Electron Temperature Response to Solar Forcing in the Low‐Latitude Martian Ionosphere

AbstractElectron temperatures are a key parameter for understanding the ionosphere‐thermosphere system. This study uses in situ data from the MAVEN mission to investigate the level of coupling between the Martian ionospheric electrons and the neutral thermosphere below the altitude of 190 km. Such coupling is responsible for significant diurnal variations and dawn/dusk asymmetries in both the neutral and plasma portions of the ionosphere‐thermosphere system. Earlier theoretical studies suggested that neutral species controlled the electron temperature by collisional cooling thus implying a diurnal trend in electron temperatures due to the diurnal variability of the neutrals. This hypothesis is evaluated across the dayside ionosphere in the present work. Observations of neutral densities confirm that neutral‐electron collisions are the primary process controlling the cooling of electrons in the Martian ionosphere below ~190 km. The consequence of this is that electron temperatures can be anticorrelated with the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) irradiance due to enhanced electron cooling brought about by an expansion of neutral densities. The results also indicate that in the afternoon sector, neutral densities are less responsive to changes in EUV. This might be associated with enhanced winds leading to dynamic cooling that mitigates the thermal expansion of the thermosphere in the afternoon region. Subsequently, the electron temperature as a function of EUV is relatively uncorrelated in the afternoon sector.

Solar flares observed by Rosetta at comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko

Context. The Rosetta spacecraft made continuous measurements of the coma of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko (67P) for more than two years. The plasma in the coma appeared very dynamic, and many factors control its variability. Aims. We wish to identify the effects of solar flares on the comet plasma and also their effect on the measurements by the Langmuir Probe Instrument (LAP). Methods. To identify the effects of flares, we proceeded from an existing flare catalog of Earth-directed solar flares, from which a new list was created that only included Rosetta-directed flares. We also used measurements of flares at Mars when at similar longitudes as Rosetta. The flare irradiance spectral model (FISM v.1) and its Mars equivalent (FISM-M) produce an extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) irradiance (10–120 nm) of the flares at 1 min resolution. LAP data and density measurements obtained with the Mutual Impedence Probe (MIP) from the time of arrival of the flares at Rosetta were examined to determine the flare effects. Results. From the vantage point of Earth, 1504 flares directed toward Rosetta occurred during the mission. In only 24 of these, that is, 1.6%, was the increase in EUV irradiance large enough to cause an observable effect in LAP data. Twenty-four Mars-directed flares were also observed in Rosetta data. The effect of the flares was to increase the photoelectron current by typically 1–5 nA. We find little evidence that the solar flares increase the plasma density, at least not above the background variability. Conclusions. Solar flares have a small effect on the photoelectron current of the LAP instrument, and they are not significant in comparison to other factors that control the plasma density in the coma. The photoelectron current can only be used for flare detection during periods of calm plasma conditions.

The Martian Bow Shock Over Solar Cycle 23–24 as Observed by the Mars Express Mission

AbstractThe Martian bow shock position is known to be correlated with solar extreme ultraviolet irradiance. Since this parameter is also correlated with the evolution of the solar cycle, it is expected that the Martian bow shock position should also vary over such a period. However, previous reports on this topic have often proved contradictory. Using 13 years of observations of the Martian bow shock by the Mars Express mission over the period 2004 to 2017, we report that the Martian bow shock position does vary over the solar cycle. Over this period, our analysis shows the bow shock position to increase on average by 7% between the solar minimum and maximum phases of solar cycle 23–24, which could be even larger for more extreme previous solar cycles. We show that both annual and solar cycle variations play major roles in the location of the bow shock at Mars.

A Model of Fluxes of Solar Extreme Ultraviolet Irradiance

We develop an approach to create a model of the solar extreme ultraviolet spectrum in the wavelength range responsible for dissociation of molecular oxygen (115−242 nm). The model is based on the concept of the linear dependence of irradiance fluxes in intervals 1 nm in width on the intensity in the Lyman-alpha hydrogen line (this line is supposed to be measured by photometers of the extreme ultraviolet irradiance onboard space probes). The linear dependence coefficients were obtained for each of these intervals. Comparison of the model calculation results with observations showed that the model inaccuracy does not exceed 1−2%, which is sufficient for calculations of the thermospheric state.