Extreme Sports Events Research Articles

What Is an Extreme Sports Healthcare Provider: An Auto-Ethnographic Study of the Development of an Extreme Sports Medicine Training Program.

“I remember when sex was safe and skydiving was dangerous” read a popular bumper sticker during the HIV crisis. Popular perceptions of extreme sport (ES) often include the descriptor ‘dangerous’. Therefore, why is the popularity of ES increasing exponentially with “dedicated TV channels, internet sites, high-rating competitions, and high-profile sponsors drawing more participants”? More importantly, how should health practitioners respond to the influx of ES athletes with novel injuries, enquiries and attitudes. This paper describes the results of a collaborative auto-ethnographic approach to answering “what is an extreme sports medicine health care provider and what are the components of an effective Extreme Sports Medicine (ESM) training program?” The study was conducted following the first ESM university course offered in Australia with the intention of assessing the learning design and reflecting on the development and practice of ES health practitioners. We explicated three overarching themes common to both the ES health practitioner and for the effective training of healthcare providers in the support of ES endeavors and athletes. These themes were individual, task and environmental factors. The impacts of these findings confirm that ESM courses are vital and should be designed specifically to ensure that practitioners are effectively supported to develop the unique skills necessary for practice in real world extreme sports events.

This must be the place: A destination-loyalty model for extreme sporting events

This paper tests a moderated sequential mediation model based on hypothesized relationships in extreme sporting events, addressing what drives participants’ destination loyalty. Drawing from edgework theory and sensation-seeking theory, the model accounts for sensation-seeking, event authenticity, self-enhancement, place attachment, and revisit intention. Two opposite paths emerge: a direct, negative relationship between sensation-seeking and destination loyalty, and a positive indirect path mediated by self-enhancement and place attachment. The relationships are explored in two studies: first, Study 1 on 300 individuals attending FISE, the largest freestyle sports event in the world. Then, Study 2, meant to extend the ecological validity of Study 1, based on a panel of 300 attendees of various extreme sporting events in several disciplines. Implications for theory and practice are addressed.

Risk is my business. Determinants of revisit intentions among participants in extreme sporting events

Multi-billion-dollar revenues and thousands of people involved, qualify extreme sports as a growing marketing phenomenon. This study addresses the determinants of consumer-athletes intention to revisit extreme sport events. We propose a model investigating the role sensation-seeking tendency, event satisfaction, and event image fit in determining revisit intention of active participants, basing on sensationseeking theory. The model is empirically tested with the SPSS PROCESS macro on 240 active participants in extreme sport events. The findings suggest that sensationseeking leads to revisit intention only through satisfaction, especially when event image fit is strong.

Faster! More! Better! Drivers of upgrading among participants in extreme sports events

Merchandising expenditures in extreme sports are a multi-billion dollar market, but contrary to most traditional sports revenue comes mainly from active consumers-athletes rather than from (passive) spectators as in traditional sport. We focus on consumers participating in extreme sports to identify the determinants of their intention to upgrade the relationship with the sports brand. A model is developed that addresses psychological theories of extreme behaviors and voluntary risk-seeking on one side, but also marketing drivers of consumers' upgrading on the other side. The model is tested on 580 active participants in two major extreme sports events. The results show that consumers-athletes upgrading is driven not only by loyalty-related marketing variables, but also, and significantly, by self-enhancement-related factors that are specific to the psychology of extreme individuals. This study contributes to the understanding of the determinants of extreme consumers' intention to upgrade, and provides important implications for future research and managers.

Living on the edge: Psychological drivers of athletes’ intention to re-patronage extreme sporting events

Extreme sports are a multi-billion-dollar marketing phenomenon. The authors explore in the context of extreme sports the relationship between risk-taking attitude, perceived control, self-enhancement, event image, and re-patronage intention, through the lens of edgework theory and cognitive adaptation. The authors advance a theoretical model of multiple moderated mediation that provides insights for understanding what drives consumer-athletes’ intention to be loyal to extreme sporting events. The authors test the model with the PROCESS macro in SPSS on 500 active participants in such events and find that risk-taking leads to feelings of self-enhancement, especially when consumers feel in control of the risks they face. Self-enhancement in turn leads to re-patronage intention, especially when consumers have a positive image of the event.

Setting Up Dates with Death? The Law and Economics of Extreme Sports Sponsoring in a Comparative Perspective

Extreme sports and extreme sports sponsoring have become key features of the modern entertainment and sports industry. This article attempts to investigate fundamental issues of the law and economics of extreme sports sponsoring from a comparative perspective. A set of 40 interviews were conducted with sponsored athletes between June and September 2018. These interviews provide an up-to-date and, to the best of my knowledge, unique account of contract practice regarding extreme sports sponsoring worldwide. The main findings of the article can be summarized as follows: First, extreme sports sponsoring contracts are currently unbalanced. Risks and rewards are unbundled—while the athletes bear almost all the risks, the sponsor firms reap almost all of the rewards. This does not necessarily imply that the current contracting practice is inefficient. Unequal bargaining power and strong non-monetary incentives of athletes may account for an uneven distribution of the monetary cooperative surplus. But the available evidence suggests that the current practice incentivizes athletes to take inefficient risks, and, based on athletes’ preferences, there are ways to significantly increase the cooperative surplus compared to the status quo. In particular, firms could arrange for comprehensive health, disability and life insurance for the benefit of athletes and their families—at little costs to firms and with a significant positive effect on athletes’ welfare. Firms could establish systematic counselling, coaching and training programs for athletes, and they could move away from bonus-based compensation schemes. Second, sponsor firms face higher duties of care vis-a-vis young and/or inexperienced athletes. These athletes, in particular, are prone to “inefficient risk-taking”. Depending on the factual circumstances of the individual case, these duties may include enhanced counselling, coaching and safety training, as already mentioned. They may also require firms to refrain from subjecting young or inexperienced athletes to extremely high-powered financial incentives (bonus schemes) that encourage inappropriate risk-taking. Third, sponsors also face higher duties of care if they are involved in or influence the organization of extreme sports events or control the premises/facilities on which such events take place. Fourth, currently, sponsored athletes are treated by sponsors as independent contractors. Depending on the facts of each individual case and the applicable legal standard to delineate independent contractors from employees, this may or may not be correct. This article suggests that courts should give more weight to economic (in)dependency as a relevant standard in addition to control exercised by sponsor firms when assessing whether a sponsored athlete is an employee. Further, even if an athlete cannot be characterized as an employee of a particular sponsor, the level of control exercised by that sponsor and the athlete’s economic dependency on him or her are factors that should weigh in on the sponsor’s duties of care under contract and/or tort law, creating a more finely tuned regulatory system than the dichotomy of independent contractor and employee suggests.

A qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) of satisfaction toward extreme sporting Events

We examine participant satisfaction in the context of extreme sporting events, where participants seek intense sensations but want to feel in control over the risky challenges. We combine two streams of literature scarcely related by previous studies, addressing both event-related and psychological attributes of extreme individuals. Because of the complex set of inter-relationships in which the investigated phenomena unfold, complexity theory tenets can provide a more accurate understanding of what generates extreme sport participants’ satisfaction toward a sporting event. Applying this perspective, the present research determines the possible combinations that build strong participant satisfaction in the context of extreme sporting events. Through qualitative comparative analysis (QCA), we identify more possible “recipes” that contribute to high levels of satisfaction. Results suggest that attributes related to the event (trust, image, attitude) and attributes related to the psychology of extreme sport participants (sensation-seeking, perceived control) contribute jointly in all “recipes”. Furthermore, satisfaction can emerge for events despite low attitude if their image is strong and participants feel in control of the challenges.

Типологічні й особистісні детермінанти стресостійкості у спортсменів екстремальних видів спорту

Мета. Виявлення індивідуальних психологічних характеристик, які визначають стійкість до стресів у спортсменів екстремальних видів спорту. У цьому дослідженні взяли участь 60 альпіністів Київського відділення Федерації альпінізму і скелелазіння (26 жінок і 34 чоловіки). Було показано, що альпіністи сприймають велике коло ситуацій як загрозливі і реагують на них зростанням тривожності. Для них характерні високі психологічна мінливість і адаптивність до зовнішніх умов, пов’язані з низьким рівнем емоційної стабільності (нейротизм), високою стабільністю і лабільністю. Опір стресу посилюється за рахунок високої самооцінки спортсменів. Це дозволяє зробити висновок про те, що стресостійкість спортсменів екстремальних видів спорту визначається особистими детермінантами, високою психологічною мінливістю і пристосованістю до зовнішніх умов

Business Sense Arrow Straight: An Examination of Brand Community and Philanthropy Bordering on Social Entrepreneurship as Primary Reasons for the Success of Vans Warped Tour

Methodology and Research DesignThe methodology and research design for this case study were threefold. First, author reviewed more than ten years of Warped and Kevin Lyman-related journalism for purpose of learning history, reported successes, and failures of entity. Second, author researched scholarly journal discussion of music festivals, brand communities, and entrepreneurship for purpose of putting in place a framework comprising factors that influence whether music festivals and entrepreneurs succeed or fail. Third, author reviewed a series of educational videos produced by Lyman and then interviewed Lyman for purposes of 1) validating and complementing research of journalistic reporting; and 2) compar- ing Lyman's statements to set of factors identified by scholars as influencing whether music festivals and entrepreneurs succeed or fail.IntroductionWarped is largest and longest-running touring music festival in United States (Ticketmaster 2015). Held in non-traditional venues such as fairgrounds, parking lots, and fields, it has been known as Vans Warped Tour since 1996. Though it began as a showcase for alternative and punk rock music, over time, Warped has evolved to feature diverse genres including hip-hop and ska.Warped's longevity appears resultant of smaller accomplishments, such as having built an extensive brand community and a long-standing and unwavering commitment to philanthropy bordering on social entrepreneurship. While Warped has not been without occasional misstep, those are typically quickly learned from and counterbalanced by entrepreneurial philosophy and skill of Lyman, who, over time, has developed a ten-point list of advice for budding entrepreneurs.Warped-which counts 2017 as its twenty-second year-shows no signs of slowing. The ultimate measure of success, however, may not be so much in future of fest itself, but rather in future shows, festi- vals, businesses, and brands that will launch, and have their own separate successes, inspired by Warped.HistoryKevin Lyman, founder of Warped, started his live events career producing college parties in 1980s using fraternities as venues and local bands as talent (Patton 2012). Following college, Lyman became a fixture in Los Angeles club scene, after a time, becoming stage manager for short-lived but legendary Long Beach, California punk rock club Fenders Ballroom, a job he says he landed because, I could read tech riders (Lyman 2015). In 1991, having never previously been on road, he was asked by Perry Farrell of Jane's Addiction, whom Lyman knew from those very same L.A. clubs, to stage-manage first Lollapalooza (Lyman 2015).Lyman ultimately graduated to producing his own events, initially extreme sports events including Board Aid, The Swatch Impact Tour, and Vision Skate Escape, where snowboarding and skateboarding headlined to backdrop of music (Patton 2012). It was those events that, when thematically turned on their heads to emphasize music over extreme sports, ultimately became Warped.Warped has consistently played between forty to fifty cities and sold around half a million tickets each year since its inception more than twenty years ago (Sculley 2005, 2014; Lyman 2015). The average fan of Warped is 17.7 years of age (Waddell 2011). The traveling entourage that is Warped comprises over eight hundred people (including over one hundred bands) traveling on nearly two hundred vehicles, about forty of which are buses (Waddell 2006, Gasperini 2008).The impact and importance of Warped have been recognized by Rock & Roll Hall of Fame and Museum through an exhibit titled Warped: 12 Years of Music, Mayhem and More. That exhibit ran for nine months in 2007 and told the story of America's longest-running touring festival and its impact on music world. After it closed, exhibit was placed into a time capsule to be opened at a special event in 2031 (Rock & Roll Hall of Fame 2007). …

A Fine Line Between Pleasure and Pain: Applying a Systems Analysis to the kimberly Ultramarathon Fire

The Kimberly ultramarathon was a tragic incident in which a bushfire trapped and severely injured five athletes. Rasmussen's [1] risk management framework and accompanying Accimap method have been shown to be appropriate for understanding adverse events in a range of areas, including outdoor recreation .[2,3] This paper presents an Accimap analysis of the Kimberly ultramarathon incident, which in turn is used to examine whether Rasmussen's framework is appropriate in the extreme sports event context. The analysis shows that features of the ultramarathon incident are consistent with Rasmussen's [1] model of accident causation in sociotechnical systems. The incident was caused by multiple, interacting factors across the wider sporting event system. Moreover, the characteristics of the incident were found to map onto the key tenets of accident causation described by Rasmussen. This article demonstrates that systems accident analysis methods are appropriate for examining extreme sporting event incidents. Specifically, the Accimap demonstrates the systems approach provides a more comprehensive understanding of the causal relationships between factors involved in the Kimberly ultramarathon fire. The implications for the design and delivery of extreme sports events are discussed.

Sport sponsorship, brand association and regulation: tobacco firms using classical conditioning theory to skirt regulation

Corporate sponsorship of sports events is about associating a sponsoring firm's brand with the sponsored activity, with the goal of increasing sales through achieving customer association with the brand. It is a crucial revenue stream for many sports organisations, and an effective tool for companies to promote their brand; however, it is not without its challenges. The purpose of this paper is to further the understanding of the use of the 'undercover brand' in sports sponsorship, particularly by the tobacco industry which faces strict regulations on advertising. An examination of the corporate sponsorship of extreme sports events by 'Export A' brand of cigarettes in Canada is provided, highlighting the sponsoring company's efforts to use classical conditioning theory to skirt the increasingly restrictive advertising and sponsorship regulations affecting the tobacco industry. Regulation of tobacco advertising across different countries is also discussed. This paper concludes with questions regarding the efficacy of sponsorship for a company when the sport-brand association can no longer be refreshed.

Extreme Sports and Extreme Liability: The Effect of Waivers of Liability in Extreme Sports

Athletes who participate in extreme sports know that by just participating in the sport, they are at a huge risk for injury. This risk for injury, however, should not include the negligent acts of the event’s sponsors and promoters. Before an athlete agrees to compete in an event, the athlete will generally sign a liability waiver that contains language absolving the sponsor from its own acts of negligence. These liability waivers in turn will bar an athlete from imposing liability on a sponsor for any injuries the athlete may sustain as a result of a sponsor’s negligence. The purpose of this article is to show why it is against public policy for sponsors of an extreme sports event to be allowed to contract away their own negligence. Athletes already assume the risks inherent in a sport, but they should not be expected to assume a risk above those inherent in the sport and suffer an injury that has been the result of a sponsor’s negligence. A sponsor, on the other hand, should not be responsible for an athlete’s injury that results from a risk inherent in the sport. This article addresses why a modification of liability waivers in extreme sports is necessary to protect the interests of both the athlete and the sponsor.

Celebration of Extreme Playfulness: Ekstremsportveko at Voss

This study aims to explore the central success factors behind the growth and prosperity of festivals. In line with resource dependency theory and the model of competitive strategies, it was assumed that successful festivals both adapt to, and influence, their contexts to their own advantage while also providing benefits for their environment. A capital framework was employed to examine the relationships between a successful festival and its context, employing a case study design and multiple methods. The case chosen was Extreme Sports Week, an annual extreme sports festival at Voss, Norway, which has become the largest extreme sports event worldwide during its 10 years of existence. It brings together sports and forms of cultural expression concentrating mainly on new trends in advanced sports activities and street culture music, combined with local food traditions. Factors in its success are the six “capitals” of the region: natural, human, social, cultural, physical, and financial. The festival balances the exploitation of these capitals, although indirectly with respect to natural capital, hence constituting an example of sustainability in festival management. Interestingly, the festival was successful in spite of very limited access to local financial capital. The analysis also revealed that a seventh capital construct – administrative capital – is relevant to the understanding of festival development. However, this form of capital was the only one where investments were perceived as problematic, and the festival repaid far more than the authorities had invested in the event.

익스트림 스포츠 참여자의 사회화과정 요소에 따른 스포츠사회화

This study is to examine the relations between the socialization factors of extreme sports participation and sports socialization. The subjects of this study were a total of 656 participants, who have participated in extreme sports(inline-skate, BMX, Skateboard, Motor-sport, Sports-climbing, Paragliding). The materials were handled by computers according to the purpose of the analysis of materials by using SAS 9.13, SPSS 12.0 programs. And the method of the statistical analysis used in this study, were factor analysis, reliability analysis, one-way ANOVA, correlation analysis, multiple regression analysis. As a result of these data analysis, the conclusions of this study are as follows. First, In comparison between sports socialization according to extreme sports events, there was a statistically significant difference. Sports socialization came out in highest numerical value in inline-skate. And It was found that extreme sport participation and sports socialization had a mutual influence. Second, there was a statistically significant differences in sports socialization according to personal characters(sex, educational level, marriage, household income, job), significant others, socialization sit uations(position of extreme sports society).

The Impact of an Extreme Sports Event on a District General Hospital

Extreme sports events are increasing in popularity, particularly in mountainous areas throughout Great Britain. Emergency medical care for these events is usually provided by voluntary organisations, providing event side first aid and referring patients to nearby District General Hospitals. The Fort William Mountain Bike Race is part of the UCI World Cup Series: 173 competitors racing in cross country, downhill and 4X events. The Belford Hospital provides year round medical care for the Lochaber community, which frequently swells during the tourist season. The hospital has 8300 new attendances per annum, 35 patient reviews per 24 hrs. We have reviewed the impact of the event on the local hospital. In total 52 riders reported 61 injuries. The hospital treated 24q (14%) riders. Retrospective analysis of attendances has revealed 19 riders attended on race days, increasing attendees by up to 28%. 46% of injured riders were seen at the A &E department, 1 rider requiring admission for observation and 1 rider required inter-hospital transfer Injury patterns (knee 20%, hand/wrist 18% and shoulder 18%) were similar to other reported series. We believe that extreme sports events can have considerable impact on small district general hospitals. Additional triage and staffing resources should be utilised and event organisers should anticipate the additional problems they present to the local community. District General Hospitals continue to provide a substantial contribution to the provision of health care for extreme sports within the UK.