Extraterrestrial Environments Research Articles

Non-thermodynamic factors affect competition between thermophilic chemolithoautotrophs from deep-sea hydrothermal vents.

The deep subsurface is the largest reservoir of microbial biomass on Earth and serves as an analog for life on the early Earth and extraterrestrial environments. Methanogenesis and sulfur reduction are among the more common chemolithoautotrophic metabolisms found in hot anoxic hydrothermal vent environments. Competition between H2-oxidizing sulfur reducers and methanogens is primarily driven by the thermodynamic favorability of redox reactions with the former outcompeting methanogens. This study demonstrated that competition between the hydrothermal vent chemolithoautotrophs Methanocaldococcus jannaschii, Methanothermococcus thermolithotrophicus, and Desulfurobacterium thermolithotrophum is also influenced by other overlapping factors such as staggered optimal growth temperatures, stochasticity, and hydrology. By modeling all aspects of microbial competition coupled with field data, a better understanding is gained on how methanogens can outcompete thiosulfate reducers in hot anoxic environments and how the deep subsurface contributes to biogeochemical cycling.

Optimizing translucent multilayer membrane for lunar habitats: A design study

In the recently boosted scenario, the eventual settlement in extreme extra-terrestrial environments, notably the Moon and Mars, stands as critical objective driving the forefront of space exploration endeavours: the possibility of realizing a lunar settlement is currently under study by NASA Artemis Program and others active subjects in the aerospace sector (Schrunk et al., 2008) [1]. As mission duration tends to increase, the wellness of crew members emerges as a stronger concern, affecting the habitat features and driving the design towards solutions that still must face environmental constraints. A wide exploration in the aerospace field has been conducted, starting from the experience accumulated in more than 50 years of experimentation and activity on board of the active and decommissioned space stations.In recent years, several pioneering concepts for human living structures on our satellite have been proposed, with an extensive adoption of transparent inflatable or deployable shells. Even if these proposals can lead the way for optimized solution identification, the technical characterization of these shells has not been extensively explored yet, and it represents a mandatory step in the path for achieving the best possible prototype to be built on the Moon surface. Our research aims to assess the viability of employing transparent or translucent inflatable-type envelopes within the harsh conditions of extra-terrestrial environments.The research background has been extensively investigated in order to identify best practices and promising solutions, which have been proposed here. Where no previous tests were conducted, traditional Earth-related engineering tools where utilized. The result of this work is a multilayer membrane to be deployed through internal air pressurization, with the correct size of each of the composing layers calculated by employing multi-physics simulations employing multi-physics simulations and computational.The outcome of this work represents not a definitive design, but an introductive experience with the aim to launch wider investigations to reach higher TRLs. Finally, we aimed to identify the limits of this research that need to be addressed in order to make an inflatable multilayer membrane feasible to be adopted for long permanent human missions on the Moon.

Whole-genome sequencing of Paenibacillus phoenicis isolated from the Phoenix Mars Lander spacecraft assembly facility.

The genome of Paenibacillus phoenicis, a spore-forming bacterium isolated from the spacecraft assembly facility of the Phoenix mission, was generated via hybrid assembly by merging short and long reads. Examining this genome may shed light on strategies to minimize the risk of contaminating extraterrestrial environments with Earth-based microorganisms.

The Concept of Life on Venus Informs the Concept of Habitability.

An enduring question in astrobiology is how we assess extraterrestrial environments as being suitable for life. We suggest that the most reliable assessments of the habitability of extraterrestrial environments are made with respect to the empirically determined limits to known life. We discuss qualitatively distinct categories of habitability: empirical habitability that is constrained by the observed limits to biological activity; habitability sensu stricto, which is defined with reference to the known or unknown limits to the activity of all known organisms; and habitability sensu lato (habitability in the broadest sense), which is circumscribed by the limit of all possible life in the universe, which is the most difficult (and perhaps impossible) to determine. We use the cloud deck of Venus, which is temperate but incompatible with known life, as an example to elaborate and hypothesize on these limits.

Nanomaterials for Potential Uses in Extraterrestrial Environments

Over the past decades, the development of nanomaterials has played an important role in the most intriguing aspects of new technologies in several scientific fields, such as nanoelectronics, nanomedicine [...]

The importance of reinforcing advanced ceramics in space projects

This article addresses the role of advanced ceramics in space exploration, highlighting their importance in tackling the unique challenges of the extraterrestrial environment. Starting with an analysis of the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003, lessons learned and safety measures implemented in the aftermath of the incident are discussed. The properties of advanced ceramics, including resistance to extreme temperatures, chemical stability, and thermal insulation capability, are explored, along with their applicability in space missions, such as radiation protection, resistance to debris, and propulsion. Strategies for maximizing the resilience of ceramics in space environments are examined, including advanced manufacturing techniques and continuous monitoring systems. Finally, specific applications of ceramics in space components, such as rocket nozzles, propulsion systems, and heat-to-electricity conversion, are discussed, emphasizing the ongoing need for innovation to ensure the success of future space missions.

Solvent constraints for biopolymer folding and evolution in extraterrestrial environments

We propose that spontaneous folding and molecular evolution of biopolymers are two universal aspects that must concur for life to happen. These aspects are fundamentally related to the chemical composition of biopolymers and crucially depend on the solvent in which they are embedded. We show that molecular information theory and energy landscape theory allow us to explore the limits that solvents impose on biopolymer existence. We consider 54 solvents, including water, alcohols, hydrocarbons, halogenated solvents, aromatic solvents, and low molecular weight substances made up of elements abundant in the universe, which may potentially take part in alternative biochemistries. We find that along with water, there are many solvents for which the liquid regime is compatible with biopolymer folding and evolution. We present a ranking of the solvents in terms of biopolymer compatibility. Many of these solvents have been found in molecular clouds or may be expected to occur in extrasolar planets.

Raman Match: Application for Automated Identification of Minerals from Raman Spectroscopy Data

Abstract Raman spectroscopy is a rapid, nondestructive analysis technique that is used in various scientific disciplines, including chemistry, materials science, and biology. The analysis of Raman spectra and the identification of specific substances in unknown samples can be complex and time-consuming tasks due to the large database of Raman spectra. The Raman Match application was developed to simplify and automate the sample identification process through a search and match method. The application integrates the well-established RRUFF Raman database with the Python programming language and provides a user-friendly graphical interface to load Raman spectra, identify and fit peaks, match peaks to the reference libraries, visualize the results, and generate publication-ready figures. The application offers a swift and automated method for mineral identification using Raman spectroscopy in both laboratory and field settings, as well as during planetary exploration missions to extraterrestrial environments with constraints on time and resources.

Criminalistics and Crime Scene Investigation in Microgravity Space

Addresses the challenges and considerations of criminalistics and crime scene investigation in extraterrestrial gravitational environments. Future space exploration may require the development of protocols for extraterrestrial crime scene investigations. Challenges in microgravity effects, confined space environments, forensic techniques, communication, coordination, and legal jurisdiction are highlighted in this brief. Microgravity effects create difficulties in dis-placing evidence, such as blood spatter patterns, which make interpretation of events difficult. Restricted areas such as spacecraft and stations require special techniques and equipment. Storing and securing evidence in microgravity makes traditional methods impractical. The lack of gravity affects fingerprint development and preservation, requiring the use of alternative methods. Compact and specialized equipment is required to analyze DNA in space. Communication de-lays hinder real-time collaboration between researchers on Earth and those in space. Guidance can be provided to personnel in space with remote technologies and autonomous systems. Determining legal jurisdiction for crimes committed in space or on spacecraft requires complex international cooperation and agreements. The development of space law, technology and international agreements is important to meet the challenges of extraterrestrial crime scene investigations. Future discussions and research will provide a basis for establishing protocols for extraterrestrial crime scene investigations to ensure effective and fair forensic practices. As space exploration progresses, advances need to be made in these areas. As space exploration advances, the development of space law, technology, and international agreements is crucial to meeting the unique challenges of extraterrestrial crime scene investigations. This summary provides a basis for future discussions and research regarding the establishment of protocols to ensure effective and fair forensic practices off Earth.

Spaceflight-associated neuro-ocular syndrome: potential etiologies and connections to the glymphatic system.

The etiology of spaceflight-associated neuro-ocular syndrome (SANS) is a developing field of research, with many current hypotheses receiving varying degrees of support. This syndrome affects ∼70% of astronauts both during and after long-duration space missions, resulting in impaired near vision and visual scotomas (blind spots). In this article, three prominent risk factors for SANS including zero gravity conditions, extraterrestrial hypercapnic environments, and individual genetic predisposition are described. These risk factors are then compared and their pathophysiological pathways are divided into five current hypotheses for the development of SANS. Finally, glymphatic system impairment is explored as a potential mutual end point for these pathways in the development of SANS.

Chapter 6: The Breadth and Limits of Life on Earth.

Scientific ideas about the potential existence of life elsewhere in the universe are predominantly informed by knowledge about life on Earth. Over the past ∼4 billion years, life on Earth has evolved into millions of unique species. Life now inhabits nearly every environmental niche on Earth that has been explored. Despite the wide variety of species and diverse biochemistry of modern life, many features, such as energy production mechanisms and nutrient requirements, are conserved across the Tree of Life. Such conserved features help define the operational parameters required by life and therefore help direct the exploration and evaluation of habitability in extraterrestrial environments. As new diversity in the Tree of Life continues to expand, so do the known limits of life on Earth and the range of environments considered habitable elsewhere. The metabolic processes used by organisms living on the edge of habitability provide insights into the types of environments that would be most suitable to hosting extraterrestrial life, crucial for planning and developing future astrobiology missions. This chapter will introduce readers to the breadth and limits of life on Earth and show how the study of life at the extremes can inform the broader field of astrobiology.

On Mars as it is on Earth: Bioinspired technologies for sustainability on Earth are paving the way for a new era of space exploration

This Perspective explores the synergy between bioinspired technologies for sustainability on Earth and their application in space exploration. We focus on the parallels between the paradigm shift toward sustainable development on our planet and establishing permanent human settlements on Mars and the Moon. Informed by Earth’s ecological and technological progress, which emphasizes the critical need for efficiency and integration with the planet’s metabolic processes, the discussion revolves around the challenges and opportunities in creating self-sustaining communities in space. Specifically, the focus is on the central role that bioinspired materials, particularly bioinspired chitinous materials, will play in developing sustainable manufacturing practices on Earth and in extraterrestrial environments. Considering the development of bioinspired chitinous manufacturing in the last decade, we argue that we are witnessing the birth of a new manufacturing paradigm embracing efficiency, resilience, and ecological cycles inspired by biological systems, which will be essential for sustainable living on Earth and advancing a new age of space exploration.

An autonomous ore packing system through deep reinforcement learning

In the contemporary era, the limited availability of terrestrial resources has prompted an increasing number of nations to turn their attention towards space, wherein extraterrestrial minerals hold considerable allure for both resource provisioning and scientific inquiry. Numerous nations have initiated the deployment of unmanned operational platforms towards extraterrestrial asteroids with the objective of accomplishing sampling return missions. Given the restricted storage capacity and energy limitations of these platforms, the optimization of mineral placement algorithms assumes paramount importance in enhancing the efficacy of these missions. In this paper, we propose an autonomous ore packing system capable of autonomously measuring ore characteristics and addressing the ore packing optimization problem in extraterrestrial unfamiliar environments. A deep reinforcement learning method that utilizes physical constraints to enhance overall performance was proposed to solve the ore packing problem with uncertainty, while meeting the high demands for real-time performance in the mission. To augment the autonomy and adaptability of our approach, we leverage advanced visual technology to transform the spatial distribution of bin utilization and the characteristics of the ore into a matrix representation. This empowers the robotic system to autonomously perceive bin information and capture essential ore features. The empirical findings substantiate that our algorithm attains a human-level performance in the majority of instances, rendering an approximate optimal solution within a concise timeframe. Additionally, we introduce a novel reinforcement learning training technique known as Maximum Worth Reinforcement Learning (MWRL) to address the optimization conundrum associated with incomplete Markov chains, which outperforms existing approaches in our comparative analysis. Lastly, we validate the efficacy of our algorithm in real-world scenarios by deploying it on a robotic manipulator.

A Review of Environmental Challenges Facing Martian Colonisation and the Potential for Terrestrial Microbes to Transform a Toxic Extraterrestrial Environment

Mars is a focus of New Space Age exploration and colonisation, but there are significant challenges to successful colonisation by humankind. Environmental microbes play a key role in supporting the ecosystems of Earth, especially within the biodegradation and bioremediation sectors. However, the repurposed roles of microbes on Mars and their associated uses to colonists remain incompletely defined. The aim of this review was to examine the key roles of microbes on Earth and how they have been employed by humans to tackle four pivotal environmental challenges associated with the colonisation of Mars, namely the physical environment, the creation of a hospitable environment via terraforming, environmental sustainability and life support, and finally, renewable processing technologies. Some species of microbes were found to be tolerant of the ever-changing physical environment on Mars (freeze–thaw and UVC exposure) making them useful for bioremediation applications. Employing perchlorate-remediating microbes for their ability to bioremediate the soils of sodium perchlorate, which is present in Martian soils, in addition to their innate ability to cycle nutrients through the biosphere showed promise in establishing sustained crops to support colonists. The employment of terrestrial environmental microbes is a necessary part of overcoming key environmental challenges to successfully colonise Mars. Without this, future New Space exploration is unlikely to be successful.

The effectiveness of the Rome II Regulation in identifying orbital pollution as an environmental damage

Besides the numerous benefits offered by outer space, manned spaceflight has lead to some negative effects manifested by various forms of pollution when introducing terrestrial substances and materials. Considering the Rome II Regulation, Article 7 applies in cases of non-contractual obligations arising out of environmental damage or damage sustained by persons or property as a result of such damage. Giving particular emphasis on space-faring member states of the European Union and the European Space Agency in regards to the damage and/or the event giving rise to it may occur within an extraterrestrial environment, Rome II does not theoretically grasp the notion of orbital pollution due to it not being identified as an “environmental damage” in any legal source. When attempting to identify orbital pollution as an environmental damage by drawing a parallel to Rome II, two elements are analyzed: (a) specific Earth-orbits polluted with orbital debris; and (b) potential damages to persons and spacecrafts resulting from spacefaring nations’ failure to mitigate domestic orbital debris; this critical analysis, hence, examines whether Rome II does justice for extraterrestrial environmental damages and further argues that the extraterrestrial environment – along with persons and property within – is just as equally endangered as the terrestrial environment.

PTFE as a viable sealing material for lightweight mass spectrometry ovens in dusty extraterrestrial environments

Abstract Ever increasing interest in the Moon, not only for scientific but also commercial and prospecting purposes, requires a more streamlined and reproducible approach to issues such as the sealing of sample handling ovens, in contrast to the mission-specific mechanisms which have tended to prevail in the past. A test breadboard has been designed and built in order to evaluate the leak rates of different oven sealing concepts and materials within the context of the PROSPECT Sample Processing and Analysis (ProSPA) instrument being developed for the European Space Agency. Sealing surface geometries based on a simple 90° knife-edge, and two widely used vacuum fitting standards (VCR® and ConFlat®) have been tested using PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) gaskets in vacuum across a temperature range of −100 to 320°C, equivalent to a projected −100 to 1000°C sample heating range in the ProSPA ovens. The impact of using glass- and carbon-filled PTFE has also been investigated, as has the effect of dust coverage of JSC-1A lunar simulant up to 9 per cent by area. The best combination of properties appears to be unfilled PTFE, compressed between two 90° knife-edges with a confining force of ∼400 N. This can produce a leak rates within the 10−7 Pa m3 s−1 range or better regardless of the level of dust applied within the experimental constraints. A strong temperature-dependence on the leak rate is identified, meaning that careful oven design will be required to minimize the temperature at the seal interface even within the operational temperature range PTFE itself.

Exploring the chemical dynamics of phenanthrene (C14H10) formation via the bimolecular gas-phase reaction of the phenylethynyl radical (C6H5CC) with benzene (C6H6).

The exploration of the fundamental formation mechanisms of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is crucial for the understanding of molecular mass growth processes leading to two- and three-dimensional carbonaceous nanostructures (nanosheets, graphenes, nanotubes, buckyballs) in extraterrestrial environments (circumstellar envelopes, planetary nebulae, molecular clouds) and combustion systems. While key studies have been conducted exploiting traditional, high-temperature mechanisms such as the hydrogen abstraction-acetylene addition (HACA) and phenyl addition-dehydrocyclization (PAC) pathways, the complexity of extreme environments highlights the necessity of investigating chemically diverse mass growth reaction mechanisms leading to PAHs. Employing the crossed molecular beams technique coupled with electronic structure calculations, we report on the gas-phase synthesis of phenanthrene (C14H10)-a three-ring, 14π benzenoid PAH-via a phenylethynyl addition-cyclization-aromatization mechanism, featuring bimolecular reactions of the phenylethynyl radical (C6H5CC, X2A1) with benzene (C6H6) under single collision conditions. The dynamics involve a phenylethynyl radical addition to benzene without entrance barrier leading eventually to phenanthrene via indirect scattering dynamics through C14H11 intermediates. The barrierless nature of reaction allows rapid access to phenanthrene in low-temperature environments such as cold molecular clouds which can reach temperatures as low as 10 K. This mechanism constitutes a unique, low-temperature framework for the formation of PAHs as building blocks in molecular mass growth processes to carbonaceous nanostructures in extraterrestrial environments thus affording critical insight into the low-temperature hydrocarbon chemistry in our universe.

Bacterial model membranes under the harsh subsurface conditions of Mars.

Biomembranes are a key component of all living systems. Most research on membranes is restricted to ambient physiological conditions. However, the influence of extreme conditions, such as the deep subsurface on Earth or extraterrestrial environments, is less well understood. The deep subsurface of Mars is thought to harbour high concentrations of chaotropic salts in brines, yet we know little about how these conditions would influence the habitability of such environments. Here, we investigated the combined effects of high concentrations of Mars-relevant salts, including sodium and magnesium perchlorate and sulphate, and high hydrostatic pressure on the stability, structure, and function of a bacterial model membrane. To this end, several biophysical techniques have been employed, including calorimetry, fluorescence and CD spectroscopy, confocal microscopy, and small-angle X-ray scattering. We demonstrate that sulphate and perchlorate salts affect the properties of the membrane differently, depending on the counterion present (Na+vs. Mg2+). We found that the perchlorates, which are believed to be abundant salts in the Martian environment, induce a more hydrated and less ordered membrane, strongly favouring the physiologically relevant fluid-like phase of the membrane even under high-pressure stress. Moreover, we show that the activity of the phospholipase A2 is strongly modulated by both high pressure and salt. Compellingly, in the presence of the chaotropic perchlorate, the enzymatic reaction proceeded at a reasonable rate even in the presence of condensing Mg2+ and at high pressure, suggesting that bacterial membranes could still persist when challenged to function in such a highly stressed Martian environment.

Feeding Mars: A pilot study growing vegetables using aquaponic effluent fertiliser in simulant and analogue Martian regoliths

The Feeding Mars study was devised as a small, pilot proof of concept study to research the potential for using aquaponic effluents as an additive to regoliths which on Mars and the Moon are devoid of organic material and thus lacking microbes which assist in the delivery of water and nutrients to the plants via their roots. This research investigates aquaponics as a way to potentially produce fish and vegetal products in regoliths on Mars and the Moon as well as in extreme environments on Earth. In order to settle on Mars, settlers will have to grow their own food in systems that are self-perpetuating, with little or no inputs being brought from Earth once these systems have been established. This means that nutrients from the fish water can be used to grow plants in the hydroponic parts of the aquaponic system but also potentially in the Martian regoliths which are treated with effluents taken from aquaponic systems. Once production is established additional nutrients can be sourced from the arisings and waste, both from the fish (that are processed and eaten) and the plants, which can be used as compost to turn the regoliths into soil. In order to have fish in space, there is also the need for the systems to be self-sustaining in the production of fish feed. The key outcomes of the project were that all the species grown (potatoes, tomatoes, dwarf beans, carrots, lettuce, spring onions, chives and basil) indicate the potential to be grown in regoliths with the addition of aquaponic effluents. A significant result was that on the whole the plants that were grown with the addition of aquaponic effluents were greener than those grown in the horticultural soil, indicating that the nutrient supply was adequate. However, a key lesson learned is that germination and thus development of the plants grown in the Mars simulant and analogue was slower than those grown in the horticultural soil. Thus, developing nutrients in the soil before planting is necessary as it is with agriculture and horticulture practices on Earth, where manuring/fertilization occurs before planting. The consequence of this research, and the envisaged research to follow is not only for extra-terrestrial environments. The Earth has its own hostile environments, characterised with regoliths and other unproductive soils, and aquaponic water and aquaponic wastes can readily be envisaged as providing solutions to growing nutritious food in areas where agriculture is not currently viable. The research was undertaken in an exhibition gallery setting at the University of Greenwich in order to encourage public interest and dialogue, which it did.

An Evaluation of Intellectual Property Rights Protection in Outer Space Activities

Plans for settlement on the moon and Mars, as well as satellite launches and space missions, are examples of the fast growing field of outer space operations. Establishing precise intellectual property rights frameworks has become essential as both public and commercial entities increase their investments in space technologies. Regarding jurisdictional authority, legislative authority, and the enforceability of intellectual property rights for technologies developed in space or utilized in extraterrestrial conditions, there are uncertainties. In the context of space operations, this article conducts a critical study of present international laws, treaties, and policy discussions on intellectual property protection. It investigates trade secrets, copyrights, trademarks, patents, and industrial designs related to space technology, operations carried out in celestial bodies, and spacecraft launched from Earth. Analyzed are the gaps and restrictions provided by current legislation, particularly Article VIII of the Outer Space Treaty, which prohibits the appropriation of space. It is also assessed how well-suited the existing organizations are to manage this field, including the United Nations Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and international space law conventions. A review of recent US laws pertaining to "space resources" and case law is presented to emphasize the necessity of an international regulatory framework for intellectual property rights in space innovation, exploration, and business. A sui generis framework is necessary because of the worldwide cooperation needed in space stations and habitats and the lack of prior experience implementing territorial intellectual property rights in extraterrestrial environments. The key components of such a customized regime that are discussed in this article are the necessity for disclosure requirements for space innovations, subject matter jurisdiction, international agreements on ownership doctrines, and technological use, particularly the establishment of priority claims over space resources