Flour Extraction Rate Research Articles

Protein digestibility in wheat noodles: The inhibitory effect and its mechanism of wheat bran dietary fiber

This study investigated the effects of different wheat flour extraction rate (35–95%) on the protein digestibility of those noodles. And to further elucidate the internal mechanism of above phenomenon, wheat flour with different amounts of wheat bran dietary fiber (WBDF) was produced by adding endogenous WBDF. Results indicated that protein digestibility rose significantly with increasing flour extraction rate, peaking at 91.85% at 80% extraction, before trending downward to 85.71% at 95% extraction. Further, among noodles containing different WBDF content, increasing WBDF content to 6% enhanced the formation of β-sheets, boosting I755 levels and reducing I854/I830 levels, thus decreasing protein digestibility. As WBDF content rose further, it promoted transition from β-sheets to β-turn, decreasing I755 and increasing I854/I830, enhancing protein digestibility slightly. The changes indicated that low level of WBDF induced a more compact protein secondary structure to inhibit protein digestion. Conversely, in noodles with high level of WBDF (>6%), the looser protein secondary structure partially alleviated the inhibitory effect of WBDF on protein digestion, which was caused by part of WBDF penetrating the protein's hydrophobic core. Moreover, the static quenching effect of WBDF on pepsin hydrolysis sites through hydrophobic interaction, especially the tyrosine, was another significant factor inhibiting protein digestion.

Influence of flour extraction rate on static in vitro gastrointestinal digestion characteristics of wheat protein during conventional milling

SummaryThe flour extraction rate determines the components of wheat flour. However, the correlation between variations in components resulting from flour extraction rate and the protein digestion characteristics remains to be clarified. In this study, digestion characteristic of wheat flour protein influenced by flour extraction rates was investigated. The results indicated that the degree of protein hydrolysis, the number of peptides at the intestinal stage and the digestive rate constant (k) at the gastric stage exhibited a significant increase as the flour extraction rate increased (35%–85%). Moreover, wheat flour with 85% extraction rate presented the highest protein hydrolysis degree (25.85%), the most peptides (n = 79) and the maximum intestinal digestion rate constant (k = 0.0285). Therefore, increasing the flour extraction rate from 75% to 85% can improve the wheat flour protein digestibility in conventional milling, thereby establishing a fundamental basis for nutritional control of flour products.

The Quality of Winter Wheat Grain by Different Sowing Strategies and Nitrogen Fertilizer Rates: A Case Study in Northeastern Poland

The present study was undertaken to determine the effect of different sowing strategies and spring nitrogen (N) fertilizer rates on the technological quality of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain in terms of its milling quality, protein complex quality, and enzyme activity (falling number). Winter wheat grain for laboratory analyses was produced in a small-area field experiment conducted between 2018 and 2021 in the AES in Bałcyny (53°35′46.4″ N, 19°51′19.5″ E, NE Poland). The experimental variables were (i) sowing date (early: 6 September 2018, 5 September 2019, and 3 September 2020; delayed by 14 days: 17–20 September; and delayed by 28 days: 1–4 October), (ii) sowing density (200, 300, and 400 live grains m−2), and (iii) split application of N fertilizer in spring (40 + 100, 70 + 70, and 100 + 40 kg ha−1) at BBCH stages 22–25 and 30–31, respectively. A sowing delay of 14 and 28 days increased the bulk density (by 1 and 1.5 percent points (%p), respectively), vitreousness (by 3 and 6%p, respectively), and total protein content of grain (by 1% an 2%, respectively). A sowing delay of 14 days increased grain hardness (by 5%), the flour extraction rate (by 1.4%p), and the falling number (by 3%) while also decreasing grain uniformity (by 1.9%p). In turn, a sowing delay of 28 days increased the wet gluten content of grain (+0.5–0.6%p) and improved the quality of the protein complex in the Zeleny sedimentation test (+1.5%). An increase in sowing density from 200 to 300 live grains m−2 led to a decrease in grain uniformity (by 2.6%p), the total protein content (by 1.5%), and the wet gluten content of grain (by 0.7%p). A further increase in sowing density decreased grain vitreousness (by 1.4%p). The grain of winter wheat fertilized with 40 and 100 kg N ha−1 in BBCH stages 22–25 and 30–31, respectively, was characterized by the highest hardness (64.7), vitreousness (93%), flour extraction rate (73.9%), total protein content (134 g kg−1 DM), wet gluten content (36%), and Zeleny sedimentation index (69 mL).

Combination of empirical and fundamental rheology for the characterization of dough from wheat flours with different extraction rate

Empirical rheological techniques conventionally used for evaluating wheat flour dough can be coupled to fundamental rheology, especially when viscoelastic properties of dough, like those with high bran content, cannot be readily investigated using empirical rheology alone. In this study, the correlations between the two types of rheology were evaluated considering flours with different extraction rate, from refined to whole grain ones. From empirical tests it resulted that flours with higher protein and fibre contents required more water to be optimally hydrated, showing also longer dough developing time. Higher tenacity and lower extensibility were also observed. Fundamental rheology assessed the viscoelastic character of the dough with a predominantly solid-like behavior, and a direct correlation between flour extraction rate and dough consistency was found. Dough made from less refined flours was less deformable and showed a more elastic recovery ability. Starch gelatinization temperature and process rate, increased and decreased, respectively, with the extraction rate. The existing correlations between empirical and fundamental rheology were used to estimate the alveograph parameters of blends of type 00 soft wheat flour enriched with 15% and 20% ground soft wheat bran. Overall, the study has shown that the combination of the two rheological approaches is useful to determine the best use of high-fibre flours that could not be determined by the official empirical methods.

‘Arán an Lae Amáireach’: Flour Extraction and Fortification in Emergency Ireland, 1939–1948

During the Second World War (1939–1945), the rate that flour was extracted from wheat to make wholemeal bread was continuously increased to save wheat supplies in Ireland. Once the dangers of eating this bread became known, doctors and scientists advocated that extraction rates be reduced alongside the fortification of flour to counteract the potential side effects. Despite several calls for action, no changes were made until connections were drawn between calcium deficiency, rickets and tuberculosis (TB). This article uses flour as a case study to understand the complexities of introducing health policy at critical periods, such as war. While interest in public health was raised due to the war, the war also ensured that attempts at sound food policies were limited. Higher extraction rates temporarily relieved wartime pressures, but this had severe health effects on the wider population. By mapping flour extraction rates alongside the incidence of disease, this article argues that political short-terminism exacerbated public health problems as symbolised in the black loaf. It was the medical profession that managed to successfully encourage action on the sole basis that flour extraction had created a health crisis among children and the poor.

Effect Of Addition Of L-Ascorbic Acid To Wheat Bread Dough On Blood Glucose Response, Glycemic Index And Glycemic Load In Normal Subject

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) as improver in bread on blood glucose response (BGR), Glycemic Index (GI) and Glycemic Load (GL) in healthy subjects. Three concentration of ascorbic acid namely, 5ppm, 10ppm and 15 ppm concentration were added to Ab-Graib wheat flour of 72 and 90% extraction in making local flat bread. Chemical composition of flour and produced bread and sensory properties were determined in order to assess the quantity of bread intake by Volunteers (Undergraduate and Graduate students in collage of Agriculture and forestry, University of Mosul) with BMI between 20-24 Kg/m2. Results show that bread samples which fortified by ascorbic acid had good and acceptable sensory properties. Both GI and GL were reduced in both 72 and 90% wheat flour extraction rate. The effect of addition of ascorbic acid in decreasing GI and GL was more in bread made from 90% flour extraction than bread made from 72% flour extraction, and this may be because of the more dietary fibers that 90% flour extraction contained. It was concluded that addition of ascorbic acid in précised quantity resulted in decreasing GI of bread made of 72 and 90% flour extractions with minimal increasing in higher concentrations.

Trade-offs in the genetic control of functional and nutritional quality traits in UK winter wheat.

A complex network of trade-offs exists between wheat quality and nutritional traits. We investigated the correlated relationships among several milling and baking traits as well as mineral density in refined white and whole grain flour. Our aim was to determine their pleiotropic genetic control in a multi-parent population over two trial years with direct application to practical breeding. Co-location of major quantitative trait loci (QTL) and principal component based multi-trait QTL mapping increased the power to detect QTL and revealed pleiotropic effects explaining many complementary and antagonistic trait relationships. High molecular weight glutenin subunit genes explained much of the heritable variation in important dough rheology traits, although additional QTL were detected. Several QTL, including one linked to the TaGW2 gene, controlled grain size and increased flour extraction rate. The semi-dwarf Rht-D1b allele had a positive effect on Hagberg falling number, but reduced grain size, specific weight, grain protein content and flour water absorption. Mineral nutrient concentrations were lower in Rht-D1b lines for many elements, in wholemeal and white flour, but potassium concentration was higher in Rht-D1b lines. The presence of awns increased calcium content without decreasing extraction rate, despite the negative correlation between these traits. QTL were also found that affect the relative concentrations of key mineral nutrients compared to phosphorus which may help increase bioavailability without associated anti-nutritional effects of phytic acid. Taken together these results demonstrate the potential for marker-based selection to optimise trait trade-offs and enhance wheat nutritional value by considering pleiotropic genetic effects across multiple traits.

The effect of wheat flour extraction rate on blood glucose response and glycemic index in healthy individuals

The aim of this work is to study the effect of flour extraction ratio on the Glucose index (Glycemic Index (GI) of Iraqi bread made from some kinds of wheat with different extraction ratios, which were 72 % ,90 % and 100 % for each kind and with participation of 70 healthy volunteers, their ages ranging from 22-40 years old and Body Mass Index between 22-30 kg/m2 .The volunteers were in good health Body Mass Index, BMI and they do not have any chronic diseases, including diabetes at the start of measurement, each participant underwent a gluocose Tolerance Test (GTT ), each participant took 50 gm from carbohydrates after fasting 10-12 hours , then blood samples were drawn from a finger after the time 0 ,30 ,60 ,90, 120 minutes. The results of calculating GI values showed a significant differences at the level (p < 0.01) between the prepared bread from the white wheat 72% and the bread prepared from flour extract 90% and the whole extracted bread 100%.

Optimization of oxidative improver’s formulation for the wheat flours with different extraction rates

In this study, the effect of oxidative improvers such as glucose oxidase (10-30 mg/kg) and ascorbic acid (50–150 mg/kg) were compared on the rheological properties of two sets of flours with different extraction rates (75% and 82%). The optimized formulation via the response surface method revealed that the oxidative improvers have a different reaction in different types of flours. In flours with a 75% extraction rate, glucose oxidase played the main role, while in the flours with an 82% extraction rate, ascorbic acid was more effective. Also, this study showed that the effects of both improvers are dose-dependent, for the 75% extraction rate of flour, the optimal dose of glucose oxidase is 23 mg/kg, and for the 82% extraction rate of flour, the optimal dosage is 90 mg/kg of ascorbic acid. Finally, the effect of the optimal formulation was investigated on the bread properties and the results were compared with the control sample.

Study on the optimization of spray drying process for Areca taro powder with microcystalline cellulose

Starch is a product of intensive processing of agricultural products. During the processing of plant starch, nutrients such as protein, dietary fiber, and minerals are removed. In addition to nutritional imbalance, rich nutrients have an impact on the environment. The object of research is Areca taro, a starch-rich agricultural product. The research aims to use spray drying technology to obtain a whole betel nut taro powder for food processing, such as sausages and noodles. The taro is used as a raw material, and the whole taro flour is obtained after peeling, cutting, crushing with water, and spray drying. Using single factor and orthogonal experiment to optimize the spray drying process parameters and embedding agent of taro powder, and then analyze its physical and chemical properties. The results show that adding 0.01 % Xanthan gum+0.12 % Microcrystalline cellulose (embedded agent) to the taro emulsion can increase the extraction rate of taro flour, speed up the drying speed, and prevent sticking to the wall. The best process of spray drying: the speed of atomizer was 16000 r/m, the wind temperature was 200 °C, the material liquid concentration was 28.00 % and the feeding rate was 75 mL/min. The taro powder produced by this process has better liquidity, light purple color, smooth texture, and strong flavor of taro. Product parameters: powder fluidity was 13.9 cm, extraction rate was 15.36 %, water activity was 0.416, chromaticity parameters were 19.73 (L* value), 2.96 (a* value) and 3.25 (b* value), bulk density was 0.44 g/mL. This technology can provide data support and reference for food processing companies. The taro whole powder would be widely used as food ingredients in future.

Evaluating the Flour Properties under Different Levels of Particle Size Distribution and Fine Bran Content

The main objective of this study was to determine the changes in the rheological characteristics of the flour produced by the industry mill Buhler AG 600 ton/day through adding big particles of flour, semolina, and fine bran (FB) to the produced flour. The study was conducted on mixed wheat grains (80% Iraqi wheat and 20% American Red wheat). After changing the directions of some pipes in the milling section, the flours were tested, and the effect of having bigger particles in the product was measured. The results showed that the flour extraction rate, moisture content, ash, and protein were increased as the flour particle size was increased. Farinograph results explained a clear effect of big particles and fine bran on increasing the water absorption, however, the dough stability was decreased mostly insignificantly. Extensiograph results showed that there was no big difference between the control flour and other produced flour. Therefore, the changes of the mill pipes could increase the flour extraction rate and reduce the pressure on the mill rolls without significant differences in the rheological properties of the produced flour.

Large scale industry mill: effect of extraction rate of flour on the dough rheological properties

Consumption of whole wheat flour is increasing worldwide because of its nutritional value. However, the flour rheological properties are affected by a high extraction rate (ER), that have been mentioned for many studies done on a laboratory scale. In the present study, a high ER flour produced by using a large-scale industrial mill was used to determine the effect of high ER on the dough rheological properties. The three studied extraction rates (80%, 85%, and 92%) were achieved by changing the roll adjustments and adding fine bran. The rheological properties (farinogram, extensiogram, and amylogram parameters) of the produced flour were determined in addition to some chemical and physical attributes. The result showed that there were no significant differences between farinogram parameters except for water absorption, which was increased with increasing ER. Also, there were no significant differences for extensiogram parameters and amylogram parameters, as well as for wet gluten and gluten index, protein, and moisture content. Conversely, for ash content, there were significant differences between the three flours. For PSD, there were no significant differences between produced flour related to the large particle size (above 720 and 354 µm). In conclusion, increasing ER of produced flour up to 92% with adding fine particle size bran had no significant effect on the rheological properties of the produced flour compared to 80% ER.

Effect of Flour Extraction Rate on the Sensory Evaluation of Iraqi Flatbread

Background: Increasing cereal fiber consumption is a trend worldwide nowadays because of the health benefits of fiber. Increasing the flour extraction rate is a way to increase fiber consumption. Methods: Three high extraction rate flours were produced (80%, 85%, and 92%) to make Iraqi flatbread. The produced flour was obtained from a big scale technical mill (10 tons/h, Altaji mill) by changing roll adjustment or merging bran output with the flour from the production line. The bread samples were evaluated for sensory acceptability using 9-points hedonic scale for palatability, flavor, and freshness, and using the just-about-right scale for color and texture attributes for three sequencing days. Results: Significant differences for palatability, color, and flavor attributes between slices of bread produced from 80% and 92% extraction rates flours were observed. There were no significant differences between the treatments for other attributes for the first day. On the second day, there were significant differences in color attribute between 92% extraction rate flour and other treatments. While the third day, there were no significant differences between the treatments for all attributes. The results also indicated that there were no significant differences in the studied attributes within the same treatment on different days. Conclusion: Iraqi consumers preferred bread prepared from lower extraction rates compared to higher, and it is mostly because of the color factor.

Effect of flour extraction rate and amylase and xylanase on texture and sensory properties of Barbari bread

Effect of flour extraction rate and amylase and xylanase on texture and sensory properties of Barbari bread

Cultivar and Crop Management Effects on Test Weight in Winter Wheat (Triticum aestivum)

Test weight or volumetric (hectolitre) weight is an important trait of wheat grain, being an important predictor of flour extraction rate and a determinant factor of the efficiency of wheat transport and storage. It is included in most standards for cereal grading and as such can influence the price received by farmers. Test weight was measured in yield trials with winter wheat cultivars grown with several crop management practices at the National Agricultural Research and Development Institute Fundulea - Romania (44º27’45’’ N latitude and 26º31’35” E longitude, 68 m above sea level) in three seasons. Years were the main factor of test weight variation and this was associated with differences between years in maximum temperatures during the second half of grain filling period. Cultivars also had a very significant effect, while the influence of mangements and of interaction between cultivars and managements with years was not significant. On average most cultivars fulfilled the requirements for Grade 1 and 2, but the percentage of cases below the 75 kg hl-1 limit varied from 0 to 66.7%. Only two of the Romanian cultivars had half or more cases in Grade 3, while most Western European cultivars had more than 50% samples below 75% kg hl-1 . Variances of the test weight values suggest that cultivars are different in stability of test weight, with most of the Romanian cultivars being less affected by the weather conditions than most Western European varieties. Two of the shortest Romanian cultivars (Voinic and Izvor) had highest average test weight and lowest frequency of lower grades, which is a progress but at the same time suggesting large possibilities of improving this trait in semidwarf wheat.

Physicochemical Characteristics and Baking Quality of Nigerian Grown Rain-Fed Wheat Varieties

Grain physical characteristics of some Nigerian grown Rain fed wheat varieties along with proximate composition, flour extraction, wet and dry gluten, and baking quality of their flours were determined. Flours of the wheat cultivars were extracted with laboratory Brabender Quadrumat Senior mill and used for Bread baking by the straight dough method. Baking parameters and sensory evaluation using 9 point hedonic scale of bread baked from flours of the wheat cultivars were investigated. Data obtained from the study were statistically analyzed using Analysis of Variance ( ANOVA) and where differences existed, mean separated using Least Significant Difference (LSD) test, at a 5% level of probability (p<0.05). The results for physical characteristics showed that 1000-grain weight ranged from 27.80-38.10g. The grain length ranged from 5.57-6.32mm, the width ranged from 2.30-2. 56mm while the density of the entries ranged from 0.96-1. 36. Flour extraction rate of the wheat cultivars ranged generally from 68.8-79.3%. Wet and dry gluten contents ranged from 32.4-46.2% and 12.4-15.0% respectively. Moisture content differs significantly for all samples ranging between 8.4-13.3%. Crude protein, fat, fibre, ash and carbohydrate ranged from 13.9-16.9%, 1.3-1.9%, 0.3-0.9%, 0.4-0.8% and 70.1-73.6%, respectively. The bread characteristics evaluated for the Nigerian rain fed grown wheat showed good baking quality as the control except for loaf volume where the control had the highest volume. The result for sensory evaluation showed that all bread samples were rated good and accepted by panels. This shows that Nigerian grown wheat can perform well as the imported wheat in terms of bread quality.

Production of free-gluten bread from some cereal crops

Bread is an important source of nutrition around the world. But there are a large number of people have gluten sensitivity which found in wheat and barley, so the manufacture of bread from free- gluten cereal is essential for these people. This study concerned with the production of free- gluten flat bread using corn and rice, in addition to a new crop that has recently cultivated in Egypt, which is the quinoa crop due to its high nutritional value and free of gluten. Flat bread was produced using mixture of 100% extraction rate of quinoa, 100% extraction rate of white rice flour and 97% extraction rate of yellow corn flour. Blends were prepared by adding them in different proportions. Physicochemical properties were studied using chemically analyzed for both row materials and different blends. The sensory evaluation and the staling were conducted to the flat bread in order to determine the best blend. By studying the sensory evaluation and the staling, it became clear that the blends of quinoa flour supplemented by white rice flour is the best. On the other hand, the increasing of the ratio of the yellow corn in the blends leads to decreasing the freshmen of the flat bread. While, the existence of the white rice flour in the blends decreases the effect of the yellow corn flour.

National Wheat and Maize Flour Fortification Standards and Their Comparison with International Guidelines in Countries with Mandatory Fortification (P22-001-19)

ObjectivesCompare national wheat and maize flour standards to World Health Organization (WHO) fortification guidelines in countries with mandatory fortification. MethodsSeventy-three countries’ grain availability, flour extraction rate, flour standards (with fortification compounds and nutrient levels) and mass fortification of other foods were obtained from databases and country contacts. For each nutrient, standards were compared with recommendations, specifically, presence of a compound that is in guidelines was noted (yes/no), and nutrient levels in standards were classified as lower than, equal to, or higher than those suggested by WHO. When a nutrient in flour was categorized as “lower than” in a particular standard and if another food (e.g., rice, oil, milk) was mass fortified with the same nutrient, the classification was changed to “less than recommendation and included in other mass fortified food”. ResultsAt least 63% of standards included one or more recommended compounds for all nutrients in standards for wheat flour alone (iron, folic acid, vitamin A, zinc, vitamin B12,), wheat and maize flour together (iron, folic acid, vitamin A, zinc, vitamin B12) and maize flour alone (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine); no country included pantothenic acid in its maize flour standard. For folic acid, vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin and pyridoxine, >50% of standards (1) met or exceeded WHO suggested levels, or (2) were lower than suggested levels and another food was mass fortified with the specific nutrient in the country. For iron, zinc and vitamin B12, <50% of standards met (1) or (2). ConclusionsIron, zinc and vitamin B12 may require the most attention in national wheat and maize flour fortification standards. Funding SourcesNo external funding received for conduct of this study.

Phenolic acid contents and antioxidant activities of wheat milling fractions and the effect of flour extraction rate on antioxidant activity of bread

Phenolic acid contents and antioxidant activities of wheat milling fractions and the effect of flour extraction rate on antioxidant activity of bread

Determinants of wheat noodle color.

Noodles are a leading food in the world, and color is a key determinant of consumer acceptance. In this review the two prominent forms of wheat noodles are considered: white salted and alkaline. Many of the preparation and evaluation strategies are the same for both, with prominence placed on 'brightness' (L*) or a lack of discoloration (ΔL*), and the absence of 'specks.' All raw noodles darken over time. Increasing the protein content of flours almost always translates into darker noodles. Greater discoloration is also associated with higher flour extraction rates, higher ash contents, and higher starch damage. Increasing storage time, dough water absorption, and temperature all often lead to greater discoloration. There is a large range in noodle color variation, and much of this variation is associated with genetics. Consequently, much research has been devoted to methods of screening germplasm, either as whole seeds, meals, flours, or noodle sheets. Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) is a primary culprit in noodle discoloration and has guided much of the research on noodle color. It is now possible to select germplasm with very low levels of PPO through the use of efficacious phenotype screens and the use of molecular markers. The success of this research has provided the opportunity to select wheat breeding lines with nil PPO activity, and to combine favorable alleles at multiple PPO loci. Yet, when noodles are prepared, we continue to observe discoloration. As our ability to minimize PPO activity increases, this 'non-PPO' discoloration has become more important. Perhaps the 'holy grail' is a noodle that never discolors, and has the 'perfect' level of a* (redness, zero?) and b* (yellowness/creaminess). Published 2018. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.