Extramarital Sexual Behavior Research Articles

Racial and Gender Differences in Extramarital Sex in the United States in the Last Three Decades

Marital infidelity is a serious problem because it can lead to separation and even divorce. Yet, little is known about racial and gender differences in levels of extramarital sex in the United States in the last three decades (1991 to 2018). This study represents the first analysis of the racial and gender differences in levels and determinants of extramarital sex in the United States. We use data from all the 15 waves of the General Social Survey in which respondents were asked if they have ever had sex with someone other than their husband or wife when they were married. Descriptive and multivariate (logistic regression) analyses were conducted to determine the levels and determinants of racial and gender differences in extramarital sex in the last three decades. There are small changes in percent of extramarital sex between 1991 (14.63 percent) and 2018 (16.48 percent). However, despite some fluctuations observed across the 15 General Social Survey waves, the prevalence of extramarital sex has remained significantly higher for blacks compared to whites, and higher also for men than women. The results show the importance of race and gender in explaining extramarital sexual behavior in the United States. We discuss these findings in relation to previous studies and suggest directions for future research.

Young rural women’s perceptions of sexual infidelity among men in Cambodia

Marriage poses a high risk of HIV infection among Cambodian women due to the country’s double standards regarding extramarital sexual behaviour. Married men are much more likely than married women to engage in extramarital sex, and, among men, such activity is often socially and culturally condoned. Understanding the sexual beliefs young people possess is important as these beliefs may affect their future sexual behaviour and HIV-related risk. This study explored how young women in rural Cambodia conceptualise men’s extramarital affairs. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted in the Khmer language with 43 female high school students in three rural provinces. Thematic analysis was used to identify themes and sub-categories from the participants’ responses. Many participants accepted men’s infidelity and verbally supported traditional cultural beliefs and practices regarding male dominance within sex and relationships. They attributed their future husbands’ infidelity to their own behaviour and/or justified the act as a consequence of work-related mobility. Findings point to the need for new interventions as part of future HIV prevention programmes to increase their effectiveness among young Cambodian adults.

Survey on extramarital sexual behaviors and HIV infection in middle-aged and elderly people aged 50 and above in selected areas of Chongqing

Objective: To know the situation of extramarital sexual behaviors and HIV infection in middle-aged and elderly people in Chongqing, and provide reference for AIDS prevention and treatment. Methods: From October to December 2017, a multi-stage sampling method was used to recruit middleaged and elderly people aged ≥50 years who lived in Dazu and Hechuan districts of Chongqing for at least one year, with a sample size of 410. Face-to-face questionnaires survey and HIV antibody test were conducted. Results: A total of 408 people were surveyed, including 313 males and 95 females aged 50-88 (64.93±9.03) years. The HIV infection rate was 1.47% (6/408), with the rate of 1.28% (4/313) in males and 2.11% (2/95) in females. The awareness rate of AIDS related knowledge was 37.50% (153/408). And 18.87% (77/408) of subjects surveyed reported extramarital sexual behaviors, 7.60% (31/408) reported extramarital sexual behaviors in the past half year, the constant condom use rate was 19.35% (6/31). The results of multivariate logistics model analysis on extramarital sexual behaviors showed that the prevalence in males were 39.51 times higher than that in females (OR=39.51, 95%CI: 5.03-310.30), 4.60 times higher in those who were unmarried, divorced or widowed than that in the married or cohabitants (OR=4.60, 95%CI: 1.50-14.05), 2.03 times higher in those with outside activities than those with individual activities (OR=2.03, 95%CI: 1.08-3.81) and 3.94 times higher in those with self-evaluation of emptiness of living state than that in those with engaged life (OR=3.94, 95%CI: 1.86-8.36). Conclusions: The prevalence of extramarital sexual behavior in middle-aged and elderly people in some counties and districts in Chongqing is high. The factors such as gender, marital status, leisure activities, and self-evaluation of living state were related to the prevalence of extramarital sexual behaviors in this population. The condom use rate in extramarital sexual behavior was low. It is necessary to take effective interventions in this population.

Discourses versus Life Courses

This article combines qualitative and quantitative analysis to study the effect of rural–urban migration on the sexual behavior of servants in nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century Flanders. In the qualitative part, I compare various discourses on servants’ extramarital behavior to sketch the ideological context which affected women’s agency. Contemporaries were commonly convinced that urban servants more often became pregnant out-of-wedlock than other women, but disagreed on the causes for this: vulnerability or immorality. In the quantitative part, I use life course analysis to determine differences in the behavioral patterns of servants and women who were never servants. Looking both at extramarital fertility and at marriage behavior, I argue that servants were slightly more risk-taking when entering into extramarital relationships. With this mixed-methods approach, this article avoids one-dimensional readings of the sources, and I challenge the dichotomous use of concepts that are too basic to comprehend the complexity of extramarital sexual behavior.

When the group encourages extramarital sex

Recent research on the HIV epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa has highlighted the relevance of married individuals‘ extramarital sexual behavior for the spread of the disease. At the same time, there is social disapproval of sexual infidelity.

Prevalence of HPV infection and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and attitudes towards HPV vaccination among Chinese women aged 18–25 in Jiangsu Province

Few data are available on the epidemiology of HPV and cervical cancer among Chinese women younger than 25 years old. This study aimed to estimate the HPV infection rate and the prevalence of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) in women aged 18-25, as well as their knowledge of and attitudes towards HPV vaccination. A population-based cervical cancer screening study was conducted on women aged 18-25 in Jiangsu province in 2008. Participants provided socio-demographic, reproductive and behavioral information and completed a survey about their knowledge of and attitudes towards HPV vaccination. Women then underwent a gynecologic exam to provide two cervical exfoliated cell samples for high risk HPV DNA testing and liquid-based cytology (LBC) as well as visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA). Women testing positive for any test were referred to colposcopy and biopsy. The gold standard for diagnosis of cervical lesions was directed or random biopsies. Within the sample of 316 women, 3.4% of them were diagnosed with CIN grade 2 or worse lesions and 17.1% were found to be positive for HPV DNA. Among these young women, extra-marital sexual behavior of them (OR=2.0, 95%CI: 1.1-3.8) or their husbands (OR=2.6, 95%: 1.4-4.7) were associated with an increased risk of HPV positivity. Although overall HPV awareness was low, after a brief educational intervention, 98.4% reported they would electively receive HPV vaccination and would also recommend that their daughters be vaccinated. However, most urban and rural women reported their ideal maximum out-of-pocket contribution for HPV vaccination to be less than 500 RMB and 50-100 RMB, respectively. Our study indicates cervical disease burden is relatively high among sampled Chinese women aged 18-25. Appropriate educational interventions for female adolescents and strategies to subsidize vaccine costs are definitely needed to ensure the effectiveness of vaccination campaigns in China.

Dating and Sex Among Emerging Adults in Nepal

Social and cultural changes in Nepal, including better communication facilities and transport, more urbanization and a rising age at which people marry, have created more opportunities for young people for “dating.” Our qualitative study explores whether the existence of dating cultures influences young people’s sexual behavior in Nepal. Focus group discussions with a total of 75 participants and 31 in-depth individual interviews were conducted among young people in Nepal. Most urban and rural young people liked the dating culture. Although it is a new kind of culture in Nepalese society, it is gaining popularity. The mass media were regarded as encouraging and creating an environment for dating. Most participants believed that dating culture encourages premarital and extramarital sexual behavior. The authors underpin their findings by linking it to the “emerging adulthood” framework. In terms of public health, they recommend that dating practice should be discussed in formal and informal education to promote safer sex.

Sexual risk behaviour of rural-to-urban migrant taxi drivers in Dhaka, Bangladesh: A cross-sectional behavioural survey

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) research in Bangladesh has mainly focused on key vulnerable groups (e.g. sex workers, drug users). In order to develop appropriate HIV prevention strategies in an evolving epidemic, there is a need for evidence on sexual practices in other population groups. This research aims to describe the prevalence of risky behaviours and factors affecting sexual behaviour/practices among rural-to-urban migrant taxi drivers in Dhaka. Cross-sectional study. This paper reports on the cross-sectional survey component of a mixed methods research study amongst migrant workers in Bangladesh. The sample (n=437) comprised rural-to-urban migrant taxi drivers in Dhaka (aged 18-35 years). The survey data were analysed statistically using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. Very high levels of pre- and extramarital sexual behaviour were found (84% and 51%, respectively) amongst the sample (n=437). The reported sexual activity included high levels of risky/unsafe sex in the past year: 64% of the sample reported sex with multiple commercial sex partners (mean=13.21), and 21.7% reported sex with other males/transgenders (mean=2.53). Protection against risk was low: 78.2% reported that their last commercial sexual encounter was unprotected, and only 5.6% used condoms consistently. Multivariate analysis revealed that the odds of risky sexual behaviour were higher in migrant men who were not married (odds ratio 35.3, P<0.001) and married men who were living apart from their spouses (odds ratio 41.7, P<0.001). Additionally, reported risk behaviours were significantly associated with frequency of home visits, duration of separation from spouse and alcohol consumption. Thus, male migration without family or spouse appears to be a key driver of risky sexual practices. This study provides important new information for understanding the dynamics of sexual behaviour in Bangladesh, and suggests that migrant men should be a key population for HIV prevention efforts. Nonetheless, the fact that most men were having unprotected sex with sex workers reinforces the importance of continuing to target interventions towards commercial sex contexts.

Sexual Health, Marital Sex, and Sexual Risk in Urban Poor Communities in India

Marital sex has been an unaddressed component of sexual risk. This article explores marital sex and its link to men's extramarital sexual behavior in 3 economically marginal communities in Mumbai, India. Using in-depth interviews with women, men, and couples, qualitative results are presented on first night experiences, ability of women to refuse their husbands' demands for sex, sexual communication, and sexual pleasure associated with marital sex. Using regression analysis of survey data for 260 couples, the quantitative results indicate that greater sexual satisfaction for both men and women is significantly related to men's lesser involvement in extramarital sex. These results provide a basis for a couples' intervention effort that can yield greater marital and sexual communication and reduction in sexual risk.

The Absent Spouses: Gender, Sex, Race and the Extramarital Sexuality among Chinese Migrants in Japan

This article investigates patterns and contexts of heterosexual extramarital practices among Chinese immigrants in Japan, and their social implications. I show that first, both Chinese men and women were engaged in extramarital sexual behavior during migration albeit in different contexts. Secondly, these extramarital sexual practices imply that international migration is both an economic strategy and a sexual strategy. Even economically motivated migration has sexual and emotional motivations and consequences. Thirdly, Chinese immigrants’ extramarital sex is culturally specific to the context of migration from China to Japan. Finally, Chinese immigrants’ extramarital sexuality shows the competing cultural interpretations of marriages and gender role expectations. Underlying the extramarital sexuality is an assumption of gender equality in sexual subjectivity. Even a seemingly regressive marital arrangement and gendered role assignment in a marriage could be used strategically by Chinese women in their pursuits of sexual and romantic expressions.

Extra-marital sexual partnerships and male friendships in rural Malawi

Extra-marital sexual partnerships (EMSPs) are a major route of HIV/AIDS transmission in sub-Saharan Africa. In this paper, we investigate the roles of two types of male friendships - best friends and friends with whom they talk about AIDS - in determining whether men have EMSPs. Using data from men in rural Malawi, we find that men's current extra-marital sexual behavior is most closely correlated with their best friends', but that the behaviors of both types of friends are associated with men's subsequent EMSPs. These findings suggest that men's friendships could be used to help combat the AIDS epidemic.

Are There Religious Variations in Marital Infidelity?

Although previous scholarship has examined the relationship between religious involvement and a wide range of family outcomes, the relationship between religion and extramarital sexual behavior remains understudied. The authors investigate how religious affiliation, participation, and biblical beliefs explain differences in self-reported marital infidelity. This study examines data from the 1991-2004 General Social Surveys and finds that religious factors are associated with the likelihood of marital infidelity. Both church attendance and biblical beliefs are associated with lower odds of self-reported infidelity. Additionally, the authors find substantial denominational variations in the odds of marital infidelity, particularly among those who strongly affiliate with their religious group.

Determinants of Zambian Men’s Extra-Marital Sex: A Multi-level Analysis

Research interest in extra-marital sex has increased as scholars have become aware of its role in sustaining epidemics of STDs in sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere. While most research has used the socioeconomic and demographic features of individuals as determinants of extra-marital sexual behavior, this study examined the role played by community characteristics. Using data from the 2003 Zambian Sexual Behavior Survey for a sample of 1,118 men aged 15-59 and multilevel logistic regression techniques, the study analyzed the effects of community social and demographic characteristics on involvement in extra-marital sex while controlling for the men's individual-level characteristics. Men's involvement in extra-marital sex was found to vary with the characteristics of communities. The chances of men's involvement in extra-marital sex increased with community-level ethnic heterogeneity and urbanization, decreased in commercial centers, and in communities with a demographic surplus of males, health workers active in AIDS prevention, and access to the mass media. These results show that scholars trying to understand the motivations for extra-marital sex must pay attention to the characteristics of both individuals and communities.

The inevitability of infidelity: sexual reputation, social geographies, and marital HIV risk in rural Mexico.

Marriage presents the single greatest risk for HIV infection among women in rural Mexico. We drew on 6 months of participant observation, 20 marital case studies, 37 key informant interviews, and archival research to explore the factors that shape HIV risk among married women in one of the country's rural communities. We found that culturally constructed notions of reputation in this community lead to sexual behavior designed to minimize men's social risk (threats to one's social status or relationships), rather than viral risk and that men's desire for companionate intimacy may actually increase women's risk for HIV infection. We also describe the intertwining of reputation-based sexual identities with structurally patterned sexual geographies (i.e. the social spaces that shape sexual behavior). We propose that, because of the structural nature of men's extramarital sexual behavior, intervention development should concentrate on sexual geographies and risky spaces rather than risky behaviors or identities.

Modern marriage, men's extramarital sex, and HIV risk in southeastern Nigeria.

For women in Nigeria, as in many settings, simply being married can contribute to the risk of contracting HIV. I studied men's extramarital sexual behavior in the context of modern marriage in southeastern Nigeria. The results indicate that the social organization of infidelity is shaped by economic inequality, aspirations for modern lifestyles, gender disparities, and contradictory moralities. It is men's anxieties and ambivalence about masculinity, sexual morality, and social reputation in the context of seeking modern lifestyles--rather than immoral sexual behavior and traditional culture--that exacerbate the risks of HIV/AIDS.

Examining the context of microbicide acceptability among married women and men in India

Married women in India are increasingly at risk of HIV, often due to their husbands' extramarital sexual behaviour. Topical microbicides may provide protection to women who are unable to negotiate condom use. During the formative phase of a study to develop measures related to microbicide acceptability, we conducted in‐depth interviews with 14 ‘high‐risk’ and 16 ‘low‐risk’ married women and 15 husbands. Some participants had recently completed a 2‐week microbicide safety trial. A sequence of in‐depth interviews with each participant explored the context of microbicide acceptability, including perceptions of couple harmony, vulnerability to HIV, sexual power, and ability to control life events. Women's perceptions of control and sexual power influenced attitudes towards microbicide use. HIV risk was most commonly associated with partner infidelity and easily detected, according to both men and women, by a lack of marital harmony. Despite this, high‐risk women denied perceiving HIV risk until confronted with specific evidence of a husband's positive HIV or STI diagnosis. This study provides an in‐depth examination of HIV risk for Indian married women, identifying potential determinants of microbicide use, and providing guidance for the development of psychometric scales to measure couple harmony, HIV risk perception, and sexual power and control.

Healing traditions and men's sexual health in Mumbai, India: The realities of practiced medicine in urban poor communities

Men's pre- and extra-marital sexual behavior has been identified as the primary factor in the growing HIV/STI epidemic among both males and females in India. One major barrier to reaching men has been their underutilization of public health services, which has severely limited programs geared to prevention and early case identification. A significant number of men in India have strong culturally-based sexual health concerns, much of which are derived from “semen-loss” and deficiencies in sexual performance. This paper reports on an ongoing Indo-US project that has focused on men's concerns about sexual health problems and assesses the services provided by non-allopaths in three low-income communities in Mumbai. Findings indicate that the primary health resources for these men are private, community-based non-allopaths, who identify themselves as ayurvedic, unani and homeopathic providers. The paper suggests that the combination of strong culturally-based sexual health concerns and the presence of private non-allopaths who manage these problems present a window of opportunity for intervention programs to address the challenge of HIV/STI prevention and early case identification in India.

Wealth and Extramarital Sex Among Men in Zambia

In Zambia, most people know about sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and HIV/AIDS, but this knowledge has not translated into safer sexual practices. An estimated 16% of adults are HIV-positive, with the majority having acquired the infection through heterosexual contact. It is important to know whether characteristics such as wealth are correlated with extramarital sex among men, because men who have sex outside of marriage are key agents of heterosexual transmission of STIs and HIV. Data for analysis came from 1,239 married men who participated in the 2001-2002 Zambia Demographic and Health Survey. Multivariate analyses were performed to identify factors associated with men's extramarital sexual behavior, with a focus on wealth. Overall, 19% of married men had had extramarital sex in the year prior to the survey; their mean number of partners was 1.3. Of the three proxies for wealth included in the multivariate analyses--education, occupation and household wealth index--none were associated with extramarital sex. Living in Southern and Western Provinces of Zambia was associated with significantly increased odds of extramarital sex (2.3 and 3.5, respectively); older age (0.4), older age at first sex (0.6-0.7) and living in Northern Province (0.4) were associated with significantly decreased odds of sex outside of marriage. Cultural norms specific to regions play an important part in sexual behavior. Socially defined sexual behavior patterns can shed light on extramarital sex and the spread of STIs, including HIV.

Risk Perception and Condom Use Among Married or Cohabiting Couples in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Most HIV prevention efforts focus on premarital and extramarital sexual behavior, but in areas with high HIV prevalence the protective needs of married and cohabiting couples are just as great and often go unmet. Condom use by these couples is generally low, with resistance from men and cultural norms commonly cited as barriers to increased use. A household survey was conducted in an urban and a rural area in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, in 1999-2000. From this survey, matched partners in 238 marital or cohabiting relationships were independently interviewed about condom use and attitudes toward condoms, knowledge of AIDS/HIV risk and self-efficacy in preventing HIV infection. Logistic regression analysis was used to assess relationships between condom use and selected demographic and HIV prevention characteristics. Although couples' knowledge of condoms and where to obtain them was very high, only 15% of men and 18% of women reported consistent or occasional use. The level of use was 8% and 11% among men and women, respectively, in rural, less educated couples, and 29% and 34% among men and women in urban, more educated couples. A majority of urban women had favorable attitudes toward condoms, and they also reported higher self-efficacy regarding HIV prevention than did rural women. A woman's perceived risk of HIV infection from her partner was the most powerful predictor of condom use (odds ratio, 4.0). The common belief that men's resistance to condom use within stable relationships cannot be overcome may be exaggerated. HIV prevention programs should address the reproductive health needs of these couples.

The Link Between Postnatal Abstinence and Extramarital Sex in Cote d'lvoire

Whether the link, found in Benin, between postnatal abstinence and husbands' extramarital contacts can be generalized to other West African countries is assessed in this study. Data from the 1994 Demographic and Health Survey, Côte d'Ivoire, obtained from monogamous husbands concerning their extramarital sexual behavior in the two months preceding the survey were linked to data reported by wives concerning postnatal abstinence over the same time period. Logistic regression was applied to assess the link between these two factors, net of the effects of possible confounders. A significant effect of postnatal abstinence on the probability that the husband reported at least one extramarital partner was found. Unprotected extramarital sex was two times more common among men who observed conjugal abstinence than it was among other men. Other predictors of extramarital sex were urban-rural residence, region, education, and whether or not husband and wife had the same religious affiliation. Because condom use is low in this population, the protective effect of marital abstinence is offset by an increased probability that husbands will seek extramarital partners during the postpartum period. The results confirm the earlier findings for Benin and can likely be generalized to most of West Africa.