Extra-biblical Texts Research Articles

Re-Examining Richard Bauckham’s Argument from Name Popularity in Light of Apocryphal and Talmudic Evidence

This article re-examines the argument from name popularity appearing in the ‘Palestinian Jewish Names’ chapter of Richard Bauckham’s Jesus and the Eyewitnesses in light of patterns of the name popularity found in extra-biblical texts. Bauckham postulates that if Gospels-Acts contained named characters invented in the process of anonymous community transmission, the statistical distribution of name popularity in Gospels-Acts would not align well with the distribution in the ancient Palestinian Jewish population, particularly if the invention took place in the Diaspora. We test this by analyzing the name popularity in two corpora of texts that contain many recognizably fictitious first-century Palestinian Jewish characters, namely a corpus of Christian extra-biblical works consisting of the Clementine Homilies, the Acts of Pilate, and Solomon of Bosra’s Book of the Bee, and the corpus of the Babylonian Talmud. Contra Bauckham, name popularity distributions in these two corpora do not correspond to the distribution among first-century Palestinian Jews statistically significantly worse than the distribution in Gospels-Acts. Moreover, the two corpora paradoxically align better in some respects because they do not exhibit a disproportional representation of specific names observed in Gospels-Acts.

Stages of Ancient Israelite Religion: From Polytheism to Monotheism

In the past scholars traced monotheism to the time of Moses, around 1200 BC. But in the last decades that date changed to 7th-6th century BC. Further, the discovery of the Ugaritic texts in 1928 on the north coast of Syria has helped historians of religion to notice the development of Israelite religion from a polytheistic Canaanite stratum to monotheistic Yahwism. Through examining biblical and extra-biblical texts, archaeological material, and inscriptions, this study traces the religious similarities of the Israelite and Canaanite culture. Genesis 49, Psalm 82 and Deuteronomy 32:8-9 are thoroughly analyzed and conclusions are made about Israel’s original God, and the original tiers of the pantheon. In the pre-exilic period (and perhaps as early as the 8th century BC) Israel enjoyed perhaps a lesser pantheon than that in the Ugaritic texts, but certainly it was considerably more extensive than what the biblical record reports. The God of Biblical Israel may not actually be very different from the gods of the neighboring nations, but claiming that he is, is an important part of the rhetoric promoting devotion to that God alone.

An Introduction to Early Judaism by James C. Vanderkam

Reviewed by: An Introduction to Early Judaismby James C. Vanderkam Zev Garber james c. vanderkam, An Introduction to Early Judaism( 2nded.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2022). Pp. xiv + 239. Paper $28.99. Generally speaking, semipopular textbooks that attempt to understand important events and personalities of early Judaism (popularly known as "Second Temple Judaism") highlight major archaeological discoveries, relevant texts, notable movements, influential shapers and shakers, and on. These introductions present a necessary backdrop story of the importance of these named references in the history and culture of Judaism from 587/586 b.c.e. (major phase of the Babylonian exile) to the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–135 c.e.). Maps, outlines, and photography bring to life archaeological, architectural, topographical, historical, biblical, and cultural data referenced and discussed in the text. They illuminate visually and textually significant personalities, geographical locations—historical data that are central in understanding this epoch of Jewish history, beginnings, and destiny. Alas, these expected features are nearly missing in VanderKam's book. His thesis is that the terrain of early Judaism is unexplored territory and therefore heavy tomes of scholarship and debate impede the learning process and progress of the beginning student, nonspecialist instructor, and general reader. His methodology is the use of biblical and extra-biblical texts that are not intended to be data set in situ, he argues, but are instead literary writings that serve ideological positions. His goal is to decode the literary genres in canonical texts and commentary and non-Jewish writings/sources to understand how the scriptural and extrascriptural writers interlaced literature, history, geography, and ideology in their descriptive take on what constitutes the religious and spatial agenda of early Judaism. The volume is divided into four main sections. The first ("The Time of the Second Temple") is parsed into the Persian period (538–332 b.c.e.), the Hellenistic age (323–63 b.c.e.), and the Roman period (63 b.c.e. and beyond). Important events, influential personalities, and decisive history-making decisions are effectively introduced, discussed, and evaluated. The work of Ezra and Nehemiah for Jewish identity and self-government, Ptolemaic and Seleucid control, the Hasmonean state, and individual leaders (Cyrus, Alexander, Judas Maccabeus, Herod, Bar Kokhba) are clearly presented. Nonetheless, cursory descriptions and evaluations can cause unanswered and/or necessary probing queries. For example, whence does the number 70/72 come in relation to the translators of the Septuagint, as recorded in the Letter of Aristeas)? VdK. offers no explanation. Support material in this section is drawn from the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, 1–4 Maccabees, and particularly from the writings of Flavius Josephus. Sections 2 ("Jewish Literature of the Second Temple Period") and 3 ("Great Archaeological Discoveries") embrace additional nonrabbinic literature and archaeology of the Second Temple period since the first edition of this volume (2001). Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha are defined and selected genre and topics are chosen for analysis, discussion, and importance. Categorical divisions embrace Histories (1 Esdras; 1 and 2 Maccabees), Tales (Tobit; Judith; Susanna; 3 Maccabees; Letter of Aristeas; Greek Esther; Joseph and Aseneth), Rewritten Scripture ( 1 Enoch; Aramaic Levi Document; Book of Jubilees; Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs; and Pseudo-Philo's Biblical Antiquities), Apocalypses (Apocalypse of Weeks [ 1 En. 93:1–10; 91:11–17]; Book of Dreams [ 1 Enoch83–90]; Sibylline Oracles; Similitudes or Parables of Enoch [ 1 Enoch37–71]); and Testament of Moses), Wisdom Literature (Wisdom of Ben Sira; the Epistle of Enoch [ 1 Enoch91–107/108]; Baruch; Wisdom of Solomon; and 4 Maccabees), Poetic Works ( Psalms of Solomon; Psalms of [End Page 347]Manasseh; and Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Young Men), Mockery of Idols (Letter of Jeremiah; and Bel and the Dragon); and the importance of Philo of Alexandria and Josephus. Archaeological findings relate to the Elephantine papyri, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and Masada. In sum, literature and archaeological findings are concisely presented with erudition and accessibility. Section 4 ("Synthesis: Leaders, Groups, and Institutions") treats the role and responsibility of religious functionaries (the high priest and the priesthood), civil authority, Sanhedrin, and major sectarian groups (Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, and others, most notably, Sicarii/Zealots, whose leadership conquered Masada in...

Eve or “Evolution”? : The Question of the Creation of Adam and Eve as the First Humans versus the Theory that Humankind “Evolved” (Self-Changed) Over Millions of Years

Inherent in the Creation (“Intelligent Design”) versus the Theory of Evolution (“natural selection”) War, is the scientific belief in the millennia-long “evolution” of humankind, versus the Christian belief in the creation of the Biblical Adam and Eve circa 7,700 B.C. This paper proposes that there is no such thing as an “evolution” of Earth’s life forms, with “evolution” being defined as self-adaptations over time to specific environments with physical modifications. Over the course of millions of years, God created then, re-designed all Earth’s life forms in successive stages, which accounts for the non-linear progression of said forms and particularly of humanoids. Integrating Mitochondria DNA and archaeological evidence with Judeo-Christian, Muslim and extra-Biblical texts, shows that after God created then re-designed pre-Adamic humans, He created the Biblical Adam and Eve circa 9,700 years ago during the Mesolithic Period as prototypes for present-day man. Moreover, archaeological evidence, plus Judeo-Christian and extra-Biblical texts, suggest that Eve and Adam co-existed with Homo sapiens during the Mesolithic/ Neolithic Periods.

Penderitaan sebagai Jalan Mistik Menuju Kesatuan Hidup bersama Kristus: Belajar dari Perjalanan Paulus Ke Sorga (2 Korintus 12:1-10)

Suffering is the secret of human life. Generally, people view suffering as God's reaction to human sin. This view is corrected by Paul in 2 Corinthians 12: 1-10, which emphasizes that suffering is not God's punishment but God's way of maintaining human humility in facing life. By using the rhetorical critique method, which is a method that explores understanding by creating a single literary genre from many inter-textualities, both in biblical texts and extra-biblical texts, this researcher finds a message that suffering is actually a 'mystical path’ to experience encounter and union with God. In union with God, humans realize that they are part of life as a whole, so they must share and care for each other based on the understanding that all human beings are part of Divine life. Thus 2 Corinthians 12: 1-10 affirms that suffering is not a negative thing and needs to be complained about, but must be grateful for the understanding that this is the ‘mystical path’ of humans towards the unity of life with Christ and fellow humans.

Az arcszín elváltozásának filológiai és antropológiai kérdései az Ószövetségben

"Changes in the Face Colour in the Old Testament: Philological and Anthropological Observations. One of the most obvious somatic signs of emotional reactions is a change in complexion (mainly paleness or redness), which can also be found in the Hebrew texts of the Old Testament. Their exact translation and interpretation, however, are debated. We start with the analysis of Nah. 2:11, in which the meaning and etymology of the term פָּארוּר (11bβ) are unclear, and the interpretations are controversial. In my view, the question of meaning can be answered not by an etymological approach but rather by the closer examination of the structure of the text and the identification of the conceptual metonyms and metaphors in it. The philological question relates to the possible translation of these physiological phenomena, and the anthropological question concerns the possible cultural differences in the conceptualization of certain emotions (particularly fear and shame). The topic of the change in facial colour concerns other biblical and extra-biblical texts. Some passages from the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Daniel are important, while from the ANE context the Ugaritic Baal myth and the Vassal Treaties of Esarhaddon seem to be relevant. Keywords: Old Testament anthropology, emotions, face colour/complexion, conceptual metonyms/metaphors "

Die Urgemeinde und das Judenchristentum

Die Urgemeinde und das Judenchristentum

Editor’s Final Introduction: Ten Years of Pauline Studies Draw to a Close

Editor’s Final Introduction: Ten Years of Pauline Studies Draw to a Close

Painting 1 Enoch: Biblical Interpretation, Theology, and Artistic Practice

This article inaugurates a new approach to biblical interpretation that involves close collaboration on a particular text between a biblical interpreter (Philip Esler) and a practicing artist (Angus Pryor), culminating in the production of works of art that generate a new understanding of the text in question. This approach reflects the recent scholarly interest in how artists who paint biblical scenes are active interpreters of biblical texts. Here the text selected is 1 Enoch, while the artworks in question are four 2 x 2 meter paintings, in oil on canvas, that depict pivotal scenes from that text. The collaboration draws on Ethiopian tradition reflecting the scriptural status and widespread influence of 1 Enoch in Ethiopia and the fact that the complete text of the work was only preserved there until its rediscovery in modern times. The interpretative process includes a focus on the original meaning of 1 Enoch, which then influences the creation of artworks laden with theological meaning. This approach is equally available to interpreters more interested in the contemporary (rather than the historical) meaning of other biblical and extra-biblical texts where the connection with national traditions, if present, may be quite different.

A History of Death in the Hebrew Bible

A History of Death in the Hebrew Bible

History of the Study of Apocrypha in Early Medieval England

Literature written in England between about 500 and 1100 CE attests to a wide range of traditions, although it is clear that Christian sources were the most influential. Biblical apocrypha feature prominently across this corpus of literature, as early English authors clearly relied on a range of extra-biblical texts and traditions related to works under the umbrella of what have been called “Old Testament Pseudepigrapha” and “New Testament/Christian Apocrypha." While scholars of pseudepigrapha and apocrypha have long trained their eyes upon literature from the first few centuries of early Judaism and early Christianity, the medieval period has much to offer. This article presents a survey of significant developments and key threads in the history of scholarship on apocrypha in early medieval England. My purpose is not to offer a comprehensive bibliography, but to highlight major studies that have focused on the transmission of specific apocrypha, contributed to knowledge about medieval uses of apocrypha, and shaped the field from the nineteenth century up to the present. Bringing together major publications on the subject presents a striking picture of the state of the field as well as future directions.

Ruth Nisse. Jacob's Shipwreck: Diaspora, Translation, and Jewish-Christian Relations in Medieval England. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2017. xiii + 235 pp.

Reviewed by: Jacob's Shipwreck: Diaspora, Translation, and Jewish-Christian Relations in Medieval England by Ruth Nisse Robert Stacey Ruth Nisse. Jacob's Shipwreck: Diaspora, Translation, and Jewish-Christian Relations in Medieval England. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2017. xiii + 235 pp. doi:10.1017/S0364009418000661 Debates between Christians and Jews over the proper interpretation of biblical texts were staples of medieval Christian religious discourse. For the most part, Jews participated unwillingly in these debates; sometimes they did not participate at all, the Jewish position being supplied by the Christian author simply as a foil for his own exhibition of exegetical ingenuity. Over the past half century, the texts of these debates, real and imagined, have been studied by a number of notable scholars. We have all learned much from their efforts. But while new discoveries may yet be made, one cannot help but feel that most of the gold in this particular vein has by now been extracted. Ruth Nisse's extraordinary book, beautifully designed and produced by Cornell University Press, leads us in a new and altogether welcome direction in the study of the intellectual relationships between medieval Jews and Christians. Her focus is on England in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, not generally regarded as a center of Jewish learning in this or any other time period. But evidence has been mounting in recent years that the Jewish scholars of medieval England were far more accomplished than we had previously realized, and that there are aspects of Jewish and Christian intellectual life in England that are both distinctive and important. This book pushes that discussion forward in exciting ways. Nisse's particular contribution is to draw our attention to the ways in which Jewish and Christian scholars sought to appropriate extrabiblical texts for their own religious traditions through translation, interpretation, and the creative compilation of diverse texts into anthologies. In her first chapter, Nisse looks at the tangled history of Flavius Josephus's Jewish Antiquities and the Jewish War. Written in Greek in the first century of the Common Era, by the end of the fourth century Josephus's works had been epitomized by a patristic Latin author known as the Pseudo-Hegesippus, who presented the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE as God's punishment for the crucifixion of Jesus by the Jews. In the mid-tenth century, a Hebrew translation and rewriting of the Pseudo-Hegesippus had been composed in southern Italy, which circulated widely, together with several other ancient texts, in an anthology known as Sefer Yosippon. But Sefer Yosippon was no mere translation. As Nisse notes, "Yosippon … engages Hegesippus polemically and transforms this … Christian narrative about … the fate of Jerusalem into its own diasporic account of Jewish self-destruction and heroic sacrifice," creating "a new kind of Jewish spiritualizing rhetoric of resistance that later became particularly influential following the persecutions of 1096 during the First Crusade" (22). In twelfth-century England, these two competing versions of Josephus's work, one Latin and the other Hebrew, collided for the first time. Both versions laid explicit claim to present historical truth, a claim given additional weight by the fact that Yosippon was written in Hebrew, the sacred language of the Jews, [End Page 468] but acknowledged by many twelfth-century Christian scholars to be essential to interpreting the Hebrew Bible and hence to establishing the truth of the prophecies that proved Jesus to be the messiah. Yosippon, however, was a problematic text for Christian intellectuals. Not only did it omit the testimony to Jesus's messiahship that the Christianized Latin versions of Josephus and Pseudo-Hegesippus featured, it also included the Toledot Yeshu, a Hebrew version of Jesus's life that in Christian eyes was nothing short of blasphemous. Nevertheless, in twelfth-century England, any resulting suspicion of Hebrew as a language of mendacity, such as was expressed by Gerald of Wales, remained a minority position among English Christian intellectuals. By the mid-thirteenth century, however, this had become the majority view, not only of intellectuals but of the English Christian population at large, with serious consequences for Jewish-Christian relations and for the continuance of Jewish life in England. Among many other...

IS IT AMBER OR METAL?

The KJV translates חשׁמל in Ezekiel 1 as "amber" (fossilized resin) whereas the Septuagint renders it "electron" (translated in the Vulgate as electrum, which is a mixture of gold and silver). Amber possesses the characteristic of static electricity, and has been known to fly into splinters when polished, thus the use of חשׁמל with the meaning of amber contributes to the sense of a dynamic mechanism moving outwards from the merkebah throne. When חשׁמל is taken in context the communicative aspect is most clearly conveyed in Ez 1:14, which suggests angelic activity in the movement described as back and forth from the throne of YHWH. The suggestion of a dynamic communicative aspect is confirmed when extra-biblical texts relating to Ezekiel chapters 1 and 10 such as I Enoch, Book of Watchers, and the Angelic Liturgy from Qumran, are consulted. Thus it is argued that the metaphorical use in Ezekiel 1 of חשׁמל as amber to explain the mechanism of mediation believed to arise from the enthroned deity justifies the translation as amber.

Retelling Noah and the Flood: A Fictional Encounter with Genesis 6-9

This article explores the retellings of and interactions with the biblical account of Noah and the flood (Gen 6–9) in modern literature. The four novels under scrutiny range from children’s literature, via young adult fiction, to mainstream fiction. They also represent diverse traditions and perspectives: from markedly Jewish or Christian perspectives to more secular viewpoints. The article investigates how these novels fill in narrative gaps and provide the key dramatis personae with personality, background, and motivation for their actions. It also looks at how the novels respond to theological problems that the biblical account raises. Why did God decide to send the flood? Why were Noah and his family spared from the destruction? Did Noah preach repentance/intercede while building the ark? Finally, it notes how several of the novels engage with extra-biblical texts (e.g., the Gilgamesh Epic, the book of Enoch) in order to produce a coherent and involving plot.

Jeremia am Ende. Prophetie als Schriftgelehrsamkeit

Abstract The contribution discusses a shift in Old Testament prophetic research, starting with recent studies on extra-biblical prophetic texts, on reading and writing capacities in ancient Israel, and on the Septuagint as well as Qumran manuscripts. The image of a genial, inspired lone wolf is replaced by the idea of tradent prophecy. This transformed perspective on prophecy is illustrated by Jer 1:4-10 and Jer 36. Finally the essay sheds some light on consequences for the discussion between the theological disciplines.

The Uses of ‘New Exodus’ in New Testament Scholarship: Preparing a Way through the Wilderness

Nineteenth-century Isaiah scholarship appears to be responsible for popularizing the term ‘new exodus’, a phrase that underscores how Isaiah’s prophecies of a return from exile link this new saving act of God with the Israelite exodus from Egypt. In the twentieth century, New Testament scholars adopted the term, and in recent years, ‘new exodus’ has been applied to a wide array of biblical and extra-biblical texts. The burgeoning popularity of the phrase ‘new exodus’ has not been matched with equal interest in reflecting on its diverse applications to a variety of ancient texts. This free-wheeling usage has diluted the value of the phrase, and a descriptive term runs the risk of becoming a simple buzzword.

Textual Cialis

Scholars have overlooked the role that disability plays within Hellenistic Jewish literature. This article looks to fill this gap by analyzing the role of disability in Philo’s Life of Moses, 4 Maccabees, Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, and the Testament of Job. The essay looks specifically at the interrelationship between masculinity and disability in these documents and the strategies employed within each narrative to repair the disabled male body within them. Each narrative, I argue, employs a unique strategy for restoring the disabled male body. Philo reinterprets Moses’ claim of impaired speech as an indication of his modesty. The writer of 4 Maccabees metaphorically repairs the crumbled bodies of its martyrs by casting them as representational athletes of virtue. Repentance eradicates disablement in the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs. The Testament of Job provides its hero with a magical prosthesis that restores his body to its previous condition. In demonstrating how these four strategies play out in each narrative, I lay out a methodology for unearthing the able-bodied bias underlying many of our biblical and extra-biblical texts.

Solomon and His Empire: Fact or Fiction?

The essay examines the plausibility of a “Double Monachy,” a large state, under a king Solomon in the 10th century with Jerusalem as its capital. First, all texts in the Old Testament are mentioned, and it is pointed out that no extrabiblical texts from the period mention such a state. In the next paragraph the archaeological finds from the period are examined whether they may allow the existence of such a state, and it is concluded that it is improbable. Also from historical knowledge of the period in the Levant as well as Solomon’s name it is concluded that there was not a large kingdom in Jerusalem under a king of that name.In the rest of the essay I try, from the story in the Bible, to date the various elements of the story, and comparing them with other legendary kings (e.g. Sargon of Akkad) to find a suitable period when such a legend could be construed, I point to the second half of the 7th cent. BCE as the best possibility for the story’s date.

Behind the Scenes of a Priestly Polemic: Leviticus 14 and its Extra-Biblical Parallels

This article examines the relationship between disease, pollution and sin in the Priestly writings, focusing on the rites for the purification of ṣara'at in Leviticus 14. In particular, it evaluates the contested question of whether this text is implicitly polemical in light of extra-biblical texts dealing with similar subject matter, especially a ritual for the treatment of skin disease from Emar. These comparisons enable a more precise characterization of the Priestly agenda reflected in Lev 14 and suggest that the traditional notion of pollution in Israel may have been deliberately reinterpreted.

The World of Jesus and the Early Church: Identity and Interpretation in Early Communities of Faith. Edited by CRAIG A. EVANS.

The genesis of this collection of essays lies in a series of scholarly meetings at Acadia Divinity College of Acadia University and Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary. There is a strong focus in the essays on the light that realia, the remains of material culture, can throw on biblical and extra-biblical texts. This is an important arena for interaction, not only because of the research yields that can result (as we see clearly in these essays), but also because this approach has the capacity to grip the imagination of students and the wider public in ways that a text-only modus operandi may not.