Extinct Ridge Research Articles

Dating seafloor spreading of the southwest sub-basin in the South China Sea

Marine magnetic lineations play important role in interpreting the age and spreading processes of the oceanic crust. However, it is difficult to identify magnetic lineations from sea surface observations in a deep and narrow low-latitude slow-spreading inactive ocean basin for many reasons, such as the highly filtered low-amplitude magnetic anomalies, highly oblique magnetization, contamination from narrow stripes, etc., which may hamper accurate lineation discrimination and identification. The spreading history of the Southwestern Sub-basin of the South China Sea (SW-SCS), which is located in such a low-latitude tectonic setting, has been debated for a long time. Near-seafloor deep-tow magnetic measurements provide high-resolution reversal records, making accurate lineation discrimination feasible. Corrections, including diurnal variation correction, regional field correction, and de-skewing, are explored. The results, calibrated with drill sites from the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) Expedition 349, show that the spreading ages of the SW-SCS range from ∼ 21 to 15 Ma (from C6A to C5B) and the full spreading rate ranges from 26 to 46 mm/yr, with an average rate of 37 mm/yr. Spreading was initially symmetric but later became asymmetric, with a rate differential reaching 10%. Combined with two seismic profiles, it is found that the roughness of the oceanic basement to the south of the extinct ridge is mainly influenced by faulted blocks, whereas to the north it is mainly influenced by magmatism. The RMS seafloor roughness is estimated to be 211 m in the south and 191 m in the north respectively. This indicates that SW-SCS seafloor spreading tends to be a transition type between axial high and axial low at the intermediate-slow spreading rate. There is a large valley in the spreading center, but the roughness far away from the center is low. the RMS basement roughness is obviously lower than that of the typical slow spreading oceanic basin. we conjecture that the larger than normal syn-spreading magma may be the reason for the low roughness. A long history of being subducted might be the deep-seated reason for all these behaviors where, and the mantle is rich in water and carbon.

Calibrating error variance and scaling global covariance function of geoid gradients for optimal determinations of gravity anomaly and gravity gradient from altimetry

With the advancements of satellite altimeter technology and data volume, the accuracy and spatial resolution of altimeter-derived marine gravity fields have been steadily improved. Ideally, a best marine gravity field from multi-altimeter missions is one that combines all data by optimally calibrating their relative weights. To this end, we use the minimum norm quadratic unbiased estimator theory to calibrate error variances of geoid gradients (GGs) from the Cryosat-2 mission and the Jason-1/2 geodetic missions and then use a scaling factor to modify the global covariance functions into local covariance functions. The calibrated error variances and the scaling factors are used in the least-squares collocation to estimate the gridded north and east components of GGs, which are used to compute gravity anomaly and vertical gravity gradient (VGG) by the methods of inverse Vening-Meinesz (IVM) and numerical differentiations. The assessment of the altimeter-derived gravity anomalies in the northern part of the South China Sea using the shipborne gravity data shows an average gravity accuracy improvement of 9.5% by calibrated and scaled covariances of GGs compared to the initial variances. The method for VGG computations is confirmed by examining the extinct ridges in the Gulf of Mexico.

A New Tectonic Model Between the Madagascar Ridge and Del Cano Rise in the Indian Ocean

AbstractThe southern Indian Ocean has several prominent aseismic ridges recognized as oceanic large igneous provinces (i.e., the Madagascar Ridge, Del Cano Rise, Crozet Plateau, and Conrad Rise) in the off‐axis areas of the Southwest Indian Ridge (SWIR). However, previously obtained magnetic survey lines are sparse and not correctly aligned with the seafloor spreading direction; thus, the detailed spreading history, including the formation of these aseismic ridges, remains an open question. We reconstructed the tectonic history of two segments between the Discovery II and Gallieni fracture zones in the SWIR using newly obtained magnetic data (total and vector magnetic field) and an open‐source magnetic data set. We revealed that the southern Madagascar Ridge and the Del Cano Rise once formed a single bathymetric high and separated by at least Chron 30y, which is quite different from the global age model. In addition, the rises may have formed before Chron 34y, assuming an extinct ridge south of the Del Cano Rise. The two rises have been recognized as having formed by Marion hotspot plume‐induced excess volcanism around the active spreading ridge of the SWIR, which can explain locally isostatically compensated thicker‐than‐normal crust. However, linear magnetic anomalies have not been observed across the main part of these rises, suggesting that magmatic activity controlled by seafloor spreading is unlikely. Like other aseismic ridges in the southern Indian Ocean, these two rises may possibly have been formed partly by continental fragments rather than plume‐induced excess volcanism.

Crustal Structure Across the Extinct Mid‐Ocean Ridge in South China Sea From OBS Receiver Functions: Insights Into the Spreading Rate and Magma Supply Prior to the Ridge Cessation

AbstractThe crust near an extinct mid‐ocean ridge provides unique constraints on how its accretion and deformation responded to the cessation of spreading. Here we present crustal thickness and Vp/Vs measurements beneath 11 Ocean Bottom Seismograph sites that cross the South China Sea's extinct spreading axis. We find that the oceanic crust, which generally had only slight thickness changes once spreading started, abruptly thins at sites close to the extinct ridge axis. Abnormally high Vp/Vs ratios are obtained at several sites south of the ridge, indicating the presence of serpentine. These observations imply that, in its final stage, spreading changed to an ultraslow accretion style. As the axial crust thinned, normal faults and/or detachment faults began to form. Water could penetrate more deeply through these faults, and large fault slip could raise ultramafic peridotites to near or at the seafloor, creating favorable conditions for their enhanced serpentinization.

Plume-ridge interaction in the South China Sea: Thermometric evidence from Hole U1431E of IODP Expedition 349

Testing the hypothesis that the Hainan mantle plume triggered the opening of the South China Sea (SCS) and interacted with the spreading ridge is important for the purpose of understanding the dynamics of the evolution of the SCS. This study examined the most primitive olivine (Fo = 83.1–87.1) and spinel (Cr# = 28–60%) in the basalt and glassy samples collected from Hole U1431E of International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) Expedition 349, with the goal of estimating the crystallization temperature. Spinels mostly enclosed by olivines have low Fe3+ and Ti contents and show compositional equilibrium with the host olivines. The application of the Al-in-olivine thermometer provided crystallization temperatures for the studied samples, which varied from 1208 ± 29 °C to 1287 ± 29 °C. When extrapolating to primitive olivine of Fo = 90, the crystallization temperature of primitive olivine is approximately 1350 °C, which is much higher than that of other primitive mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB) but comparable to that of Iceland oceanic island basalt (OIB). Therefore, the mantle potential temperature at the extinct ridge of the SCS at ~16 Ma is much higher than that beneath a normal mid-ocean ridge, manifesting the mantle plume-ridge interaction during the last spreading of the SCS. Given the lack of thick oceanic crust, seamount chains or lineaments in the SCS, we propose that this plume impacted on the SCS might be eclogite-rich and of low buoyancy.

A global review and digital database of large-scale extinct spreading centers

Extinct mid-ocean ridges record past plate boundary reorganizations, and identifying their locations is crucial to developing a better understanding of the drivers of plate tectonics and oceanic crustal accretion. Frequently, extinct ridges cannot be easily identified within existing geophysical data sets, and there are many controversial examples that are poorly constrained. We analyze the axial morphology and gravity signal of 29 well-constrained, global, large-scale extinct ridges that are digitized from global data sets, to describe their key characteristics. Additionally, the characteristics of a representative collection of active spreading centers are analyzed to review the present-day variation in the bathymetry and gravity signal of ridges in different tectonic settings such as backarc basin ridges, microplate ridges, and large-scale plate boundaries with varied spreading rates. Uncertain extinct ridge-like structures are evaluated in comparison with the signals of well-defined extinct ridges, and we assess whether their morphology and gravity signals are within the range seen at extinct (or active) ridges. There is significant variability in extinct ridge morphology; yet we find that the majority of well-defined extinct ridges have a trough form and a negative free-air gravity anomaly. We compile available data on the spreading characteristics of extinct ridges prior to cessation, such as their spreading rates and duration of spreading, and find significant differences between ridge subtypes and between oceans. Large-scale extinct mid-ocean ridges persist much longer than extinct microplate spreading ridges and extinct backarc basin spreading ridges before cessation. Extinct fragmented plate and microplate spreading centers have the highest pre-extinction spreading rates, and they have greater median relief at their axial segments, suggesting that different crustal accretion styles could lead to different morphology after spreading cessation. Backarc basin ridges have more pronounced relief when they have been active for longer before cessation, which supports theories of reduced magmatic supply as the basin width increases. Extinct ridges in the Atlantic Ocean have the lowest spreading rates prior to cessation and tend to persist for twice as long as those in the Pacific before extinction. There are a larger number of extinct ridges preserved within marginal basins than expected for their combined area; these ridges may relate to the complexity of the plate boundaries in these regions. Our review of a large number of controversial extinct ridge locations offers some insight into which proposed locations are more likely to have been former spreading centers, and our analysis further leads to the discovery of several previously unidentified structures in the south of the West Philippine Basin that likely represent extinct ridges and a possible extinct ridge in the western South Atlantic. We make available our global compilation of data and analyses of individual ridges in a global extinct ridge data set at the GPlates Portal webpage.

New Somali Basin magnetic anomalies and a plate model for the early Indian Ocean

The oldest portions of the Indian Ocean formed via the breakup of Gondwana and the subsequent fragmentation of East Gondwana. We present a constrained plate model for this early Indian Ocean development for the time period from Gondwana Breakup until the start of the Cretaceous Normal Superchron. The motions of the East Gondwana terranes are determined using new geophysical observations in the Somali Basin and existing geophysical interpretations from other coeval Indian Ocean basins. Within the Somali Basin, recent satellite gravity data clearly resolve traces of an east–west trending extinct spreading ridge and north–south oriented fracture zones. A thorough compilation of Somali Basin ship track magnetic data allows us to interpret magnetic anomalies M24Bn through M0r about this extinct ridge. Our magnetic interpretations from the Somali Basin are similar in age, spreading rate, and spreading directions to magnetic anomalies previously interpreted in the neighboring Mozambique Basin and Riiser Larsen Sea. The similarity between the two magnetic anomaly datasets allows us to match both basin's older magnetic anomaly picks by defining a pole of rotation for a single and cohesive East Gondwana plate. However, following magnetic anomaly M15n, we find it is no longer possible to match magnetic picks from both basins and maintain plausible plate motions. In order to match the post-M15n geophysical data we are forced to model the motions of Madagascar/India and East Antarctica/Australia as independent plates. The requirement to utilize two independent plates after anomaly M15n provides strong circumstantial evidence that suggests East Gondwana breakup began around 135Ma.

Geodynamics of the South China Sea

The beginning of seafloor spreading in the South China Sea (SCS) is now established from IODP drilling Leg 349 at 33Ma. Chron 12 (32Ma) is the oldest chron identified in the SCS. The nature of the crust of the northeastern part of the SCS located north of chron C12, where chrons 15 to 17 were previously identified, is not oceanic but thinned continental crust intruded by volcanic elongated features emplaced 17–22Ma ago. Based on magnetic anomaly identifications, the end of the SCS spreading could be either 15.5, 20.5Ma (Briais et al., 1993; Barckhausen et al., 2014) or something else. However, as post-spreading magmatic activity (~13–3.5Ma) largely masks the spreading fabric in particular near the axis of the east sub-basin, published locations of the axial magnetic anomaly (extinct spreading axis) and spreading rates are not reliable. A contoured map of the extremely dense set of magnetic data shows that a few magnetic lineations belonging to the magnetic seafloor spreading fabric are still preserved and parallel to the N055° bathymetric seafloor spreading trends identified on swath-bathymetric maps in the central part of the SCS, suggesting that the extinct ridge axis is N055° trending with potential N145° transform faults. Based on published swath-bathymetric data, oceanic domains with different seafloor spreading lineaments have been delimited (N055°, N075° and N085°) and provide important constraints used to propose a kinematic sketch of the SCS opening. As a consequence, the Zhongnan faults zone, located between the east and southeast sub-basins, acted as a major fracture zone system during the SCS opening, with horizontal offsets varying from ~50km to ~140km.The flow-line pattern defined from the seafloor spreading lineaments and the few identified FZs have been used to highlight conjugate segments of continental margins. During the first phases of opening of the SCS, from the fit of continents to chron C10 (30Ma), the N175° extension observed in the Xisha trough and eventually south of the Macclesfield Bank extends to the Qui Nhon ridge, located along the eastern margin of Vietnam, in the southward prolongation of the Red River fault system. Normal faults curve toward the south with a horsetail geometry interpreted as evidence for a few tens of kilometers of dextral motion along the Qui Nhon ridge. Since chron 10 and until the end of SCS opening, the plate boundary located between the southern South China Sea (SSCS) and EU plates jumped westward several times from the location of the Ulugan fault near Palawan to the western limit of the southwest basin, explaining the progressive formation of the SCS from east to west and giving the characteristic V-shape of the SCS. The opening of the whole SCS is linked and occurred simultaneously with the northward subduction of the proto-SCS whose suture is located south of Palawan and extends westwards in north Borneo.

Oceanic microplate formation records the onset of India–Eurasia collision

Mapping of seafloor tectonic fabric in the Indian Ocean, using high-resolution satellite-derived vertical gravity gradient data, reveals an extinct Pacific-style oceanic microplate (‘Mammerickx Microplate’) west of the Ninetyeast Ridge. It is one of the first Pacific-style microplates to be mapped outside the Pacific basin, suggesting that geophysical conditions during formation probably resembled those that have dominated at eastern Pacific ridges. The microplate formed at the Indian–Antarctic ridge and is bordered by an extinct ridge in the north and pseudofault in the south, whose conjugate is located north of the Kerguelen Plateau. Independent microplate rotation is indicated by asymmetric pseudofaults and rotated abyssal hill fabric, also seen in multibeam data. Magnetic anomaly picks and age estimates calculated from published spreading rates suggest formation during chron 21o (∼47.3 Ma). Plate reorganizations can trigger ridge propagation and microplate development, and we propose that Mammerickx Microplate formation is linked with the India–Eurasia collision (initial ‘soft’ collision). The collision altered the stress regime at the Indian–Antarctic ridge, leading to a change in segmentation and ridge propagation from an establishing transform. Fast Indian–Antarctic spreading that preceded microplate formation, and Kerguelen Plume activity, may have facilitated ridge propagation via the production of thin and weak lithosphere; however both factors had been present for tens of millions of years and are therefore unlikely to have triggered the event. Prior to the collision, the combination of fast spreading and plume activity was responsible for the production of a wide region of undulate seafloor to the north of the extinct ridge and ‘W’ shaped lineations that record back and forth ridge propagation. Microplate formation provides a precise means of dating the onset of the India–Eurasia collision, and is completely independent of and complementary to timing constraints derived from continental geology or convergence histories.

Pacific plate slab pull and intraplate deformation in the early Cenozoic

Abstract. Large tectonic plates are known to be susceptible to internal deformation, leading to a~range of phenomena including intraplate volcanism. However, the space and time dependence of intraplate deformation and its relationship with changing plate boundary configurations, subducting slab geometries, and absolute plate motion is poorly understood. We utilise a buoyancy-driven Stokes flow solver, BEM-Earth, to investigate the contribution of subducting slabs through time on Pacific plate motion and plate-scale deformation, and how this is linked to intraplate volcanism. We produce a series of geodynamic models from 62 to 42 Ma in which the plates are driven by the attached subducting slabs and mantle drag/suction forces. We compare our modelled intraplate deformation history with those types of intraplate volcanism that lack a clear age progression. Our models suggest that changes in Cenozoic subduction zone topology caused intraplate deformation to trigger volcanism along several linear seafloor structures, mostly by reactivation of existing seamount chains, but occasionally creating new volcanic chains on crust weakened by fracture zones and extinct ridges. Around 55 Ma, subduction of the Pacific-Izanagi ridge reconfigured the major tectonic forces acting on the plate by replacing ridge push with slab pull along its northwestern perimeter, causing lithospheric extension along pre-existing weaknesses. Large-scale deformation observed in the models coincides with the seamount chains of Hawaii, Louisville, Tokelau and Gilbert during our modelled time period of 62 to 42 Ma. We suggest that extensional stresses between 72 and 52 Ma are the likely cause of large parts of the formation of the Gilbert chain and that localised extension between 62 and 42 Ma could cause late-stage volcanism along the Musicians volcanic ridges. Our models demonstrate that early Cenozoic changes in Pacific plate driving forces only cause relatively minor changes in Pacific absolute plate motion directions, and cannot be responsible for the Hawaiian–Emperor bend (HEB), confirming previous interpretations that the 47 Ma HEB does not primarily reflect an absolute plate motion event.

Passive-source ocean bottom seismograph (OBS) array experiment in South China Sea and data quality analyses

Long-term passive source ocean bottom seismograph (OBS) observatory is challenging due to various technical difficulties. In order to gain experience in this field, and to reveal the lithospheric structure beneath the extinct ridge in the central South China Sea (SCS), we carried out a passive source OBS array experiment, which includes 18 OBSs, in the deep portion of SCS. Here we present the instrumentation, the OBS deployment and recovery of this experiment, and more importantly, the data quality evaluated by a number of approaches. Through processing and inspecting waveforms from global, regional and local earthquakes, we find that most of recovered OBSs have good data quality with discernible main phases. The ambient noise analyses of OBS recordings show that their noise is higher than the global average, and the horizontal component is noisier than the vertical, indicating current impacts on horizontal components are more severe. In the period range of 5–10 s, there is a noise notch for the SCS OBSs, and noise levels of horizontal components are comparable to the vertical. This feature, which is not seen at OBS stations in open ocean, suggests the distant sources for double frequency microseism in this marginal sea are not significant. In addition, we successfully determined the orientations for 7 OBSs by investigating their Rayleigh wave polarizations; and we demonstrated the dispersion feature of Rayleigh waves through the frequency-time analysis. Finally, we summarized lessons learned from this experiment regarding the passive source OBS investigations in SCS.

The tectonic fabric of the ocean basins

[1] We present a global community data set of fracture zones (FZs), discordant zones, propagating ridges, V-shaped structures and extinct ridges, digitized from vertical gravity gradient (VGG) maps. We use a new semi-automatic FZ tracking program to test the precision of our hand-digitized traces and find a Mean Absolute Deviation of less than 3.4 km from the raw VGG minima that most clearly delineate each feature, and less than 5.4 km from the FZ location predicted by fitting model profiles to the VGG data that represent the morphology of the individual FZs. These offsets are small considering gravity data only provide an approximation for the underlying basement morphology. We further investigate the origin of non-FZ seafloor fabric by combining published abyssal hill heights computed from gravity anomalies with global half-spreading rates. A residual abyssal hill height grid, with spreading rate effects removed, combined with our interpreted tectonic fabric reveals several types of seafloor fabric distinct from typical abyssal hills. Where discordant zones do not overprint abyssal hill signals, residual abyssal hill height anomalies correspond to seafloor that accreted near mantle thermal anomalies or zones of melt-depletion. Our analysis reveals several areas where residual abyssal hill height anomalies reflect pseudo-faults and extinct ridges associated with ridge propagation and/or microplate formation in the southern Pacific Ocean.

Split Philippine Sea plate beneath Japan

The shape of the Philippine Sea Plate subducting beneath western Japan is a crucial factor in understanding earthquakes and volcanic activity. We propose that the subducted plate was split along an extinct ridge due to an abrupt change of subduction direction, followed by elastic deformation of the plate and an accumulation of stress near the ridge. This shape is consistent with receiver function images, the distribution of deep tremor sources, the seismicity and focal mechanisms of intraplate earthquakes, and the distribution of anomalous ratios of helium isotopes in ground water. The movement history of the plate can explain active tectonics in western Japan in the last 2–4 Ma. The location history of the volcanic front and the tear control where fluids ascend in the crust, and these fluids are responsible for the generation of large earthquakes and volcanoes.

Tracing extinct spreading center in SW Japan by helium-3 emanation

In the Kinki district of southwestern Japan, anomalously high 3He/ 4He ratios (high Ra) are observed in the frontal arc region. This globally unique phenomenon is called the “Kinki Spot.” These high- Ra values are not attributable to dehydration of the young, warm subducting Philippine Sea slab based on the magma aging effect. A recent study reported that the source melt generated below the plate may penetrate a large slab tear fissure and arrive at the shallow crust by upwelling flow. To verify this hypothesis, we collected 25 gas and water samples from hot springs in the northern district and measured the 3He/ 4He and 4He/ 20Ne ratios of these samples. The geographical distribution of high- Ra values revealed not a spot but a region extending parallel to the extinct spreading center in the Shikoku Basin. More precisely, the distribution is shaped like a backwards letter “L,” suggesting that the subducted spreading center may have been a mid-ocean ridge with a transform fault. This hypothesis is supported by seismic tomography results and is consistent with the geometry of the subducting slab deduced from seismic isodepth contours as well as that of a young magnetic anomaly in the region. Thus, the high 3He emanation may trace an extinct ridge–transform–ridge type spreading center in a subduction zone.

Crustal structure and rift flank uplift of the Adare Trough, Antarctica

The Adare Trough, located 100 km northeast of Cape Adare, Antarctica, represents the extinct third arm of a Tertiary spreading ridge between East and West Antarctica. It is characterized by pronounced asymmetric rift flanks elevated up to over 2 km above the trough's basement, accompanied by a large positive mantle Bouguer anomaly. On the basis of recently acquired seismic reflection and ship gravity data, we invert mantle Bouguer anomalies from the Adare Trough and obtain an unexpectedly large oceanic crustal thickness maximum of 9–10.5 km underneath the extinct ridge. A regional positive residual basement depth anomaly between 1 and 2.5 km in amplitude characterizes ocean crust from offshore Victoria Land to the Balleny Islands and north of Iselin Bank. The observations and models indicate that the mid/late Tertiary episode of slow spreading between East and West Antarctica was associated with a mantle thermal anomaly. The increasing crustal thickness toward the extinct ridge indicates that this thermal mantle anomaly may have increased in amplitude through time during the Adare spreading episode. This scenario is supported by a mantle convection model, which indicates the formation and strengthening of a major regional negative upper mantle density anomaly in the southwest Pacific in the last 50 million years. The total amount of post‐26 Ma extension associated with Adare Trough normal faulting was about 7.5 km, in anomalously thick oceanic crust with a lithospheric effective elastic thickness (EET) between 3.5 and 5 km. This corresponds to an age between 3 and 5 million years based on a thermal boundary layer model and supports a scenario in which the Adare Trough formed soon after spreading between East and West Antarctica ceased, confined to relatively weak lithosphere with anomalously thick oceanic crust. There is little evidence for major subsequent structural activity in the Adare trough area from the available seismic data, indicating that this part of the West Antarctic Rift system became largely inactive in the early Miocene, with the exception of minor structural reactivation which is visible in the seismic data as offsets up to end of the early Pliocene.

Volcanic margin formation and Mesozoic rift propagators in the Cuvier Abyssal Plain off Western Australia

The western margin of Australia is characterized by synrift and postrift magmatism which is not well understood. A joint interpretation of magnetic anomaly, satellite gravity anomaly and seismic data from the Cuvier Abyssal Plain and margin shows that the breakup between India and Australia started circa 136 Ma (M14) and was followed by two rift propagation events which transferred portions of the Indian Plate to the Australian Plate. Post breakup magmatism continued with the emplacement of the Wallaby and Zenith plateaus (∼17–18 km thick at their centers) along a transform margin. Two narrow magmatic edifices adjacent to the Wallaby Plateau (Sonne and Sonja ridges) represent an extinct ridge and a pseudofault, respectively. They formed by excess volcanism, probably by lateral migration of buoyant melt along upside‐down crustal drainage channels from the melt source underneath the Wallaby Plateau. In a mantle plume scenario a small plume (∼400 km diameter) located underneath the rift could have locally uplifted the Bernier Platform and Exmouth Sub‐basin in the Early Cretaceous and left a track consistent with the azimuth of the Wallaby and Zenith plateaus. In this case, ridge‐plume interaction would have caused two consecutive ridge propagation events towards the plume while the ridge moved away from the hotspot. The abrupt end of the hotspot track west of the Zenith Plateau would be a consequence of the accelerating south‐eastward motion of the spreading ridge relative to the mantle after 120 Ma, leaving the mantle plume underneath the Indian Plate. An alternative nonmantle‐plume scenario is based on the observation that between breakup and chron M0 (∼120 Ma) the ocean crust in the southern Cuvier Abyssal Plain was formed while the spreading ridge abutted Indian continental crust. Small‐scale convection may have been initiated during rifting in the Early Cretaceous and maintained until the Wallaby‐Zenith ridge‐transform intersection passed by the eastern edge of Indian continental crust at chron M0.

A deep seismic reflection profile across the extinct Mid‐Labrador Sea spreading center

In 1990 a deep multichannel seismic reflection line was shot along a flow line across the Labrador Sea. The results from the central portion of this line between magnetic anomalies 25 and across the extinct central ridge are described here. Spreading rates in this part of the Labrador Sea are very low, from 10 mm/yr to less than 3 mm/yr, so that the line provides a unique opportunity to examine the relationship between very slow spreading and crustal structure. A clear division is observed between two types of crust. The oldest crust, between dirons 21 and 25, which formed at a mean half spreading rate of 10 mm/yr, exhibits smoothly undulating basement with only minor normal faulting. This region shares many of the reflection characteristics of North Atlantic crust formed at moderate to low spreading rates. In contrast, the younger central region, between chrons 21 and 13, which formed at a mean half spreading rate of 3 mm/yr, displays evidence of intense normal faulting of the crust, giving a total extension of about 70%. Inward facing normal faults on both sides of the extinct ridge, with large offsets, many of which extend to lower crust or Moho depths, dominate the seismic section. The axial region is characterized by a deep, fault‐bounded, median valley. These results suggest that mechanical extension plays a more important role in seafloor spreading at low spreading rates than previously documented. Integration of the reflection data with previous refraction measurements and with gravity modeling of the region shows variations in crustal thickness which can be correlated with spreading rates. The region formed at a mean spreading rate of 10 mm/yr, where about 15% extension is observed, exhibits slightly thinner than normal crust (4.8 km or less versus a normal thickness of about 7 km). At a lower spreading rate of 3 mm/yr across the axial region where extension is about 70%, an average crustal thickness of 3 km is obtained. Thus lower spreading rates are associated with regions of thinner crust and greater amounts of extension. While many studies suggest that thin crust at slow spreading rates may result from a reduced magma supply, this study suggests that extension is at least equally important and may be responsible for most of the variations in crustal thickness. The increased cooling of young oceanic lithosphere formed at these very low spreading rates (approximately 3 mm/yr) may have amplified brittle failure in response to plate separation. However, the timing of extension is still uncertain and some of it may be related to postextinction tectonics and not to the spreading process. The role of extension as a control on crustal thickness needs to be considered further in studies of crustal generation and magmatism at slow spreading ridges. Extension will decrease the importance of magmatism in generating thin oceanic crust and will favor models of magmatic processes which produce thicker crust.

Gravity anomalies over extinct spreading centers: A test of gravity models of active centers

Gravity fields over active mid‐ocean ridges display long wavelength free‐air gravity highs with superimposed short wavelength anomalies over the spreading axis. These axial anomalies are negative over slow spreading active ridges with amplitudes of typically 30–70 mGal and wavelengths of 40–60 km but decrease in amplitude and wavelength with increasing spreading rate until, at fast spreading centers, the anomalies are positive (10–20 mGal) with wavelengths of about 20–30 km. Similar free air anomalies are observed over extinct spreading ridges and typically show the same paleo‐spreading rate dependency, suggesting that a large component of the anomaly is not dynamically maintained. Calculation and removal of gravitational effects from basement relief results in significant residual gravity lows at the extinct ridges analyzed here, even though the thermal effects associated with active spreading have diminished and no longer contribute to such short wavelength gravity lows. The amplitudes of the residual lows at slow paleo‐spreading rates are 25–45 mGal with half widths of about 20–45 km, and decrease with increasing spreading rate to about 5 mGal amplitude and 10–15 km half‐width over fast paleo‐spreading ridges. The amplitudes and wavelengths of these residual anomalies are nearly identical to those of the residual anomalies observed over active spreading centers. Most previously proposed models of mid‐ocean ridge structure are unable to explain these anomalies and many are inconsistent with a least some aspect of the large body of knowledge currently available for mid‐ocean ridges. This research provides a further constraint on geometric models of accretion, as these models predict vastly different gravity fields. Results indicate that a frozen‐in low density accretionary structure is probably confined to within about 10 km of either side of the extinct axis. This conclusion is consistent with the presence of a low‐density gabbroic root situated at shallow mantle depths beneath the ridge axis. This root tends to narrow with increasing spreading rate, producing the required residual gravity field variation.

On The initiation of subduction

Estimates of shear resistance associated with lithospheric thrusting and convergence represent lower bounds on the force necessary to promote trench formation. Three environments proposed as preferential sites of incipient subduction are investigated: passive continental margins, transform faults/fracture zones, and extinct ridges. None of these are predicted to convert into subduction zones simply by the accumulation of local gravitational stresses. Subduction cannot initiate through the foundering of dense oceanic lithosphere immediately adjacent to passive continental margins. The attempted subduction of buoyant material at a mature trench can result in large compressional forces in both subducting and overriding plates. This is the only tectonic force sufficient to trigger the nucleation of a new subduction zone. The ubiquitous distribution of transform faults and fracture zones, combined with the common proximity of these features to mature subduction complexes, suggests that they may represent the most likely sites of trench formation if they are even marginally weaker than normal oceanic lithosphere.

Tectonic fabric map of the ocean basins from satellite altimetry data

Satellite altimetry data provide a new source of information on the bathymetry of the ocean floor. The tectonic fabric of the oceans (i.e., the arrangement of fracture zones, ridges, volcanic plateaus and trenches) is revealed by changes in the horizontal gravity gradient as recorded by satellite altimetry measurements. SEASAT and GEOSAT altimetry data have been analyzed and a global map of the horizontal gravity gradient has been produced that can be used to identify a variety of marine tectonic features. The uniformity of the satellite coverage provides greater resolution and continuity than maps based solely on ship-track data. This map is also the first global map to incorporate the results of the GEOSAT mission, and as a result, new tectonic features are revealed at high southerly latitudes. This map permits the extension of many tectonic features well beyond what was previously known. For instance, various fracture zones, such as the Ascension, Tasman, and Udintsev fracture zones, can be extended much closer to adjacent coninental margins. The tectonic fabric map also reveals many features that have not been previously mapped. These features include extinct ridges, minor fracture zone lineations and seamounts. In several areas, especially across aseismic plateaus or along the margins of the continents, the map displays broad gravity anomalies whose origin may be related to basement structures.