Extension Networks Research Articles

Challenges and Opportunities for Extension in Drought Adaptation: A Case Study of Ranching in New Mexico

Abstract Prolonged drought poses significant challenges for food and fiber production in the U.S. Southwest, where range livestock production has great economic and cultural significance. Sustaining rangeland agriculture in the region necessitates swift and nimble uptake of drought adaptations. While the Cooperative Extension Service serves as a promising resource to drought adaptation among ranchers, how Extension staff perceive their capacity to support ranching clientele in that endeavor is not well understood. We interviewed university Extension professionals across New Mexico to explore their perceptions of drought. We found that their perceived ability to aid in drought adaptation was dependent upon interpersonal, as well as structural, factors. These factors differed across ranching regions in New Mexico. This case study highlights the importance of Extension networks, opportunity for novel Extension training, and a need for heightened attention to structural barriers.

Knowledge-implementation processes in crop protection literature

ABSTRACT Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore how new research on crop protection practices is communicated to end-users by investigating which knowledge-implementation processes are recommended in crop protection literature. Design/methodology/approach This analysis is completed through a qualitative systematic review of literature on knowledge-implementation in crop protection where six knowledge-implementation processes are identified from 65 articles: information and communication technologies (ICT), management models and approaches, education platforms and events, advisory and extension services, networks, and collaborative approaches. We place special emphasis on the gaps and trends around networks and collaborative processes, building on communication theory research. Findings While many articles discussed multiple knowledge-implementation processes, it was found that most of the processes discussed aligned with a transmission communication model and the traditional agricultural knowledge and innovation system. While 11 articles described networks and 22 articles described collaborative processes in line with a constitutive model of communication, these tended to provide limited advice on how these processes could be achieved in practice, identifying a need for further investigation of how multilateral communication can be used to better crop protection practice. Practical Implications These findings can help facilitate better communication between researchers and farmers, promoting processes that include farmers and other actors as sources of knowledge and improving the efficiency and effectiveness of crop protection practices. Theoretical implications This study enhances the understanding of knowledge-implementation in agriculture, emphasizing the need to draw on multiple forms of communication to address the knowledge-to-action gap. Originality/Value There is limited research that examines the knowledge-to-action gap in agriculture, particularly in relation to crop-protection practices. As a review study, this manuscript provides an overview of how this topic is described in the field.

Unsupervised domain adaptation of dynamic extension networks based on class decision boundaries

In response to the problems of inaccurate feature alignment, loss of source domain information, imbalanced sample distribution, and biased class decision boundaries in traditional unsupervised domain adaptation methods, this paper proposes a class decision boundary-based dynamic expansion network unsupervised domain adaptation method called CDE-Net. Specifically, our method dynamically expands the autoencoder-based network structure, which can preserve source domain feature information while gradually adapting to the target domain data distribution and learning useful feature information from the target domain. Meanwhile, by minimizing clustering loss and conditional entropy loss, CDE-Net can explore the intrinsic structure of the data and push class decision boundaries away from dense data areas. We experimentally verify our method on three medical image datasets, chest X-rays, intracranial hemorrhage, and mammography, and achieve an average AUC improvement of 25.8% or more compared to non-transfer methods. In addition, we compare our method with previous unsupervised domain adaptation methods, and the experimental results show that our method achieves better classification accuracy and generalization performance.

Bridging Sorghum Yield Gap Through Up-Scaling Improved Technology in Wag-Himira Zone, Ethiopia

Up-scaling of improved sorghum production practices (Sorghum technology, hereafter) was carried out for three years to bridge the yield gaps in dry-land areas. It was explicitly aimed to create wider technology demand among major stakeholders. Their roles and linkages were also acknowledged to make technology diffusion viable. The new technology was promoted for 264 farmers; planting and related agronomic practices were done as per the package. Results revealed that the new technology had a 116.6% yield advantage over the local sorghum production practice. The technological gaps among the new and local practice were 1400 and 988.7 kg ha-1 for grain and straw yields, respectively. The technological index (53.8%) also proved that sorghum production would increase through tamping the extension networks, on top of up-to-date technology usage. despite, 83.6% of the farmers were applied the full technology package, 68.3% of them described as it was tough due to its labor-intensive nature. Labor shortage, lack of experience and technological obscurity of studied farmers were defies for complete technology package use. To bridge sorghum yield gaps sustainably, the new technology should further scale-out to other similar areas via founding robust-enough stakeholder linkage, and demand-driven distribution.

Drivers and challenges of large-scale conversion policies to organic and agro-chemical free agriculture in South Asia

ABSTRACTAddressing global environmental and food challenges necessitates holistic approaches that consider environmental, societal, and economic dimensions. This study examines three large-scale organic farming conversion programs and their associated policies in Sikkim, India, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka. Sikkim stands as the world's first state to fully transition to organic agriculture, while Bhutan is embarking on a similar path, and Sri Lanka is implementing a toxin-free program. A qualitative analysis reveals key drivers and barriers in these large-scale conversions. Five crucial factors for successful transitions to large-scale organic farming emerge: effective institutional leadership, affordable third-party certification, phased reduction of agrochemicals through clear political pathways, development of extension networks, market access with price premiums, and the provision of organic inputs. Key drivers include improving rural livelihoods, upscaling traditional farming practices, addressing health concerns related to agrochemicals, and preserving natural resources. Significant challenges include shortages of organic inputs, limited market access, inadequate food supply, a lack of knowledge about alternative practices and inputs, and high certification costs. In addressing these factors and challenges, policymakers and scientists can better navigate the complex landscape of large-scale organic farming conversion.

A Translational Approach to Increase Pulse Intake and Promote Public Health through Developing an Extension Bean Toolkit.

Practical, affordable solutions need to be implemented to address global challenges confronting human and environmental health. Despite a myriad of benefits for people and the planet, beans and other pulses (e.g., chickpeas, cowpeas, dry peas, lentils) are under-consumed. To better understand consumer concerns and interests, a Food Habits Survey was conducted and the findings were incorporated into the Colorado State University Extension Bean Toolkit. Guided by the Information-Motivation-Behavioral Skills model, the toolkit included informational social media posts, cooking guidance, and an online class. A convenience sample of participants was recruited through Extension and university networks. After class participation, significant gains in knowledge of pulse nutrition, versatility, and cooking were observed, with an average increase of 1.5 points on a 5-point Likert scale (p < 0.001). Moreover, participants (n = 86) perceived a greater importance of motivators (e.g., nutrition, versatility, environmental benefits) and found barriers (e.g., flatulence, long cooking times, unfamiliarity) to be less discouraging. Most participants reported an intention to eat more pulses, and among those who completed the 1-month follow-up survey, pulse intake frequency increased (p = 0.004). Emphasizing motivating factors while simultaneously mitigating barriers to consumption can help reverse insufficient intake and promote healthy behavior change. Leveraging Extension or similar networks is one way to adopt a translational approach to better reach the public with this information.

Influence of Agricultural Technology Extension and Social Networks on Chinese Farmers’ Adoption of Conservation Tillage Technology

Agricultural technology extension and social networks are the essential components of formal and informal institutions, respectively, and their influence on agricultural production has been the focus of academics. This article takes conservation tillage technology as an example, based on simple random unduplicated sampling, and uses survey data of 781 farmers in Heilongjiang, Henan, Shandong, and Shanxi provinces of China. This article empirically tests the interaction effects and heterogeneity of agricultural technology extension and social networks on farmers’ adoption of conservation tillage technology and analyzes their substitution effect or complementary effect. The results showed the following: (1) From a single dimension, both agricultural technology extension and social networks can significantly promote farmers’ adoption of conservation tillage technology, and the promotion effect of agricultural technology extension is greater. The average probability of farmers who accept agricultural technology extension and social networks adopting conservation tillage technology increases by 36.49% and 7.09%, respectively. (2) There is a complementary effect between agricultural technology extension and social networks in promoting farmers’ adoption of conservation tillage technology. The two functions complement and support each other, and this complementary effect is more evident in social networks’ reciprocity. (3) Further analysis reveals that the interaction effect between agricultural technology extension and social networks has significant group differences, technology type differences, and regional differences in farmers’ adoption of conservation tillage technology. Therefore, to facilitate the extension and application of conservation tillage technology, efforts need to be made in both agricultural technology extension and social networks, fully leveraging the complementary effects of the two. In addition, differentiated policies and measures should be adopted according to local conditions, and precise policies should be implemented for different groups and technologies.

Extension Networks and Dissemination of Horticultural Advancements: Development and Validation of a Professionalization Instrument

Horticulture is a vast scientific discipline ranging from ornamentals to consumable food, which is constantly evolving. One of primary goals of horticultural innovation is to improve consistency, and predictability, among products. Extension is one of the primary channels connecting innovations and technologies to growers. However, despite the importance of extension in the dissemination of horticultural advancements, there are no standards for the professionalization of extension networks. Therefore, there is a current gap in the ability to ensure consistency amongst extension providers through professionalization at the network level. The goal of the study was to develop and validate an extension professionalization scale to empirically measure the most critical factors associated with extension professionalization within extension networks. Methodologically, the study extends upon previous research which identified specific capacities associated with extension professionalization at the network level. Specifically, an exploratory factor analysis was undertaken to examine the latent factor structure of the previously identified items. The results of this study identified two primary factors associated with extension professionalization in networks: (a) awareness of the need for extension professionalization, and (b) the operational integration of extension professionalization activities at organizational levels. Although there is existing literature examining professionalization, there are no such instruments specifically developed within an extension context. The present study provides an original and novel tool to prepare more rigorously and consistently trained extension professionals to serve and support the horticulture industry.

Development and Validation of an Empirical Instrument to Measure Organizational and Institutional Functioning Capacity Within International Extension Networks

International extension networks provide vital services to stakeholders using a variety of organizational structures. To continue offering services desired by stakeholders, it is important that both public and private extension networks develop effective organizational functioning capacities. Despite this need, an instrument to empirically examine the perceived capacities of effective international extension network organizational and institutional functioning was unavailable in the literature. The present study developed and validated the International Extension Network Organizational Functioning (IENOF) scale. Scale development included validation of content, response process, internal structure, and consequential utility. Structural analysis indicated the 21-items loaded on four factors, including: network structure and relevance, network management and activities, network strategy and guidance, and network leadership. The results of the study indicate the IENOF may provide an empirical instrument to examine the capacities of international extension network organizational functioning. Furthermore, the analysis provides insights into the nuance and unique characteristics associated with international extension network organizations. Replication studies and further statistical analyses are recommended to examine the nature of the instrument and associated outcome variables of interest. From a practical perspective the IENOF is recommended to be considered as an input to the theory of co-innovation to aid international extension networks in fostering a culture of innovation. Utilizing IENOF insights to inform the theory of co-innovation should better enable extension networks to provide services and programming that meet the needs of network stakeholders.

Impacts of Extension Contact on the Adoption of Formulated Fertilizers and Farm Performance among Large-Scale Farms in Rural China

Growing concerns about the environmental costs of agricultural production have given new impetus to the promotion of sustainable agricultural production technologies that can reduce soil erosion and the excessive use of agricultural chemicals. Although numerous policies have been implemented to popularize soil testing and formulated fertilization technologies in China, the diffusion of the technology among large-scale farmers (LSFs) has been addressed only rarely. We used a two-stage controlled function model to control for endogeneity and selection bias in contacting extension staff to assess the effect of an extension contact on technology adoption behavior by LSFs, Propensity Score Matching techniques are also utilized to analyze the effects of extension contact on the rice yields and nutrient use amount. Empirical results from Jiangsu and Jiangxi provinces show that extension contact plays a crucial role in promoting soil testing and the adoption of formulated fertilization technologies; LSFs’ adoption raises rice yields, however, the impact of extension contact on reducing nutrient use amount does not pass the significance test. The findings add to the theoretical literature on technology extension, and we used them to suggest policies to encourage tailored agricultural extension systems by constructing rural technological extension networks.

Toward evidence-based decision support systems to optimize pollination and yields in highbush blueberry

Highbush blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) is a globally important fruit crop that depends on insect-mediated pollination to produce quality fruit and commercially viable yields. Pollination success in blueberry is complex and impacted by multiple interacting factors including flower density, bee diversity and abundance, and weather conditions. Other factors, including floral traits, bee traits, and economics also contribute to pollination success at the farm level but are less well understood. As blueberry production continues to expand globally, decision-aid technologies are needed to optimize and enhance the sustainability of pollination strategies. The objective of this review is to highlight our current knowledge about blueberry pollination, where current research efforts are focused, and where future research should be directed to successfully implement a comprehensive blueberry pollination decision-making framework for modern production systems. Important knowledge gaps remain, including how to integrate wild and managed pollinators to optimize pollination, and how to provide predictable and stable crop pollination across variable environmental conditions. In addition, continued advances in pesticide stewardship are required to optimize pollinator health and crop outcomes. Integration of on- and off-farm data, statistical models, and software tools could distill complex scientific information into decision-aid systems that support sustainable, evidence-based pollination decisions at the farm level. Utility of these tools will require multi-disciplinary research and strategic deployment through effective extension and information-sharing networks of growers, beekeepers, and extension/crop advisors.

Training at farmers training centers and its impact on crop productivity and households’ income in Ethiopia: A propensity score matching (PSM) analysis

The creation and expansion of training and extension networks for rural households are indispensable to develop and improve skills and to increase productivity and income-generating capabilities. In this line, Ethiopia has established farmers/pastoralists training centers (F/PTCs) since 2002 aimed at providing a multitude of services to farmers at the grassroots level. One of these services is the provision of training. The purpose of this study, therefore, is to assess the impact of training on crop productivity and households’ income in the study area. Cross-sectional data were collected from April to June 2020 from 362 and 373 sample respondents involved in wheat (Triticum aestivum) and maize (Zea mays) production in the 2018/19 main cropping season, respectively. The mixed-methods research approach was used for the study. The quantitative data were collected through a semi-structured interview schedule from the respondents. The qualitative data were also collected by interviewing key informants and conducting focus group discussions. The propensity score matching (PSM) model was applied to analyze the impact of training on the aforesaid outcome variables. About 87% of the sample households were engaged in both wheat and maize production in the study area. The PSM results found indicate that trainees increased their wheat and maize yield by 860.16 (26.66%) and 301.56 (10.10%) kg ha-1, respectively. They also earned a net annual income of 7,490 (19.64%) Ethiopian birr ha-1 from wheat production.

Search, seek, share: A national survey assessing Americans’ information channels and sharing behaviors during a pandemic

The spread of accurate and inaccurate information happened quickly in the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic and understanding how this occurred is important to prepare for communication of future disease outbreaks. The purpose of this study was to understand Americans’ information seeking and sharing behaviors during the early stages of COVID-19 and was guided by the following objectives: identify passive sources/channels of information; identify active sources/channels of information; and describe how frequently and across which channels/sources the U.S. public shared information about COVID-19 in early stages of the pandemic. Results indicated people first found information about COVID-19 from personal communication but turned to national and international organizations if they were to actively seek information. Scientists and universities were some of the least sought after and shared sources of information. The sources shared most were from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organization. Implications from this research are a need for communicators to use grassroots communication efforts during a crisis, to actively share information early during a crisis, to share information outside of traditional academic networks, and to collaborate with sources inside and outside of traditional Extension networks.

Governing extension and extending governance for Pacific organic farming

AbstractOrganic farming in the Pacific region could provide higher‐than‐average premiums to small‐scale farmers. Thus, many farmers seek specific information on market access and internationally recognised global standards and third‐party certification. Agricultural extension work has changed in terms of formal and informal understanding and expression. Concomitantly, pluralist extension networks and innovation have replaced singular, publicly‐delivered extension services because of an increase in private commercial interests under prevailing neoliberal logics. Nevertheless, there are socio‐spatial barriers to farmers accessing extension and establishing relations with certifying bodies and some extension partners. Thus, agricultural extension experts will need to create new governance arrangements with local farmer groups as nodes within pluralist public–private–producer networks and regional information flows to support these groups and their accountability and trust with local constituents. In this article, we argue that geographically disparate local farmer groups should be supported by flatter governance of agricultural extension to better link local farmer nodes in comparable growing regions with other transnational local nodes, and with regional certification bodies. Aided by powerful supporting partners in such a plural extension network, this type of flat governance would build trans‐local connections that better situate small‐scale farming and food security as responsive to future uncertainties.

Identifying Respondent Group Representation in Extension Capacity Assessments: A Meta-Synthesis of the Literature and a Primary Study

A key factor in determining the future of agricultural extension efforts is ensuring that the voices of those who need to be heard are represented at all stages of the decision-making process. As agricultural extension becomes increasingly globalized, it is critical that the diversity of voices represented within capacity assessments likewise increases. Using two distinct approaches, the present study attempts to address a current gap within the extension literature specifically related to extension assessment respondent groups. First, 97 extension related assessment manuscripts were identified during a literature review and analyzed for respondent group. The results indicated most studies included only one respondent group. Among these assessments Clientele and Beneficiaries and Formal Power Roles were the respondent group categories most frequently examined. Next, a primary study was conducted to identify which respondent groups should be represented in capacity assessment according to agricultural extension experts. The panelists had the highest level of agreement regarding the inclusion of extension clientele and beneficiaries within capacity assessments. However, panelists agreed that representation from outside influences and formal power roles were also important to include in the capacity assessment process. The results indicate extension networks should purposively include a diverse set of respondents when conducting assessments to ensure a comprehensive perspective is represented.

Greening the Virtual Smart City: Accelerating Peer-to-Peer Learning in Urban Agriculture With Virtual Reality Environments

Urban agriculture is emerging across the United States (U.S.) as a distinct food production system that can help address food security and equity concerns of marginalized, urban communities. While urban farming is accelerating across the nation rapidly, the system of peer-to-peer learning that represents farmer education and training in the U.S. is based on rural agriculture. We describe the development of virtual reality (VR) platforms to support farmer knowledge transfer and innovation that transcend the physical constraints of traditional agricultural extension based on on-farm demonstrations. We feature a VR model representing an organic farm in New York City with details of farm operations, and opportunities to stack educational and training materials along with personal narratives, as part of the virtual farm demonstration. The potential for VR to accelerate innovations in food justice is a critical component of smart cities technologies and should be developed in parallel with modernization efforts with land grant universities and their cooperative extension networks of farmer-to-farmer education and training.

Identifying Respondent Group Representation in Extension Capacity Assessments: A Meta-Synthesis of the Literature and a Primary Study

A key factor in determining the future of agricultural extension efforts is ensuring that the voices of those who need to be heard are represented at all stages of the decision-making process. As agricultural extension becomes increasingly globalized, it is critical that the diversity of voices represented within capacity assessments likewise increases. Using two distinct approaches, the present study attempts to address a current gap within the extension literature specifically related to extension assessment respondent groups. First, 97 extension related assessment manuscripts were identified during a literature review and analyzed for respondent group. The results indicated most studies included only one respondent group. Among these assessments Clientele and Beneficiaries and Formal Power Roles were the respondent group categories most frequently examined. Next, a primary study was conducted to identify which respondent groups should be represented in capacity assessment according to agricultural extension experts. The panelists had the highest level of agreement regarding the inclusion of extension clientele and beneficiaries within capacity assessments. However, panelists agreed that representation from outside influences and formal power roles were also important to include in the capacity assessment process. The results indicate extension networks should purposively include a diverse set of respondents when conducting assessments to ensure a comprehensive perspective is represented.

Development and Validation of the International Extension Network Advocacy Capacity Scale

Extension is sometimes viewed globally as less important than academic research and innovation, even though these networks are crucial to agricultural development. Using Lewin’s (1947) organizational change theory as a conceptual background, an instrument to measure advocacy capacity within international extension networks was developed. The resulting scale was analyzed for content validity, response process validity, internal structure validity, and consequential validity. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed on the proposed scale. The underlying structure of the scale was found to load onto five factors. The five extracted factors were labelled: 1) network support of advocacy, 2) network integration of advocacy, 3) network influence in advocacy, 4) network visibility in advocacy, and 5) network advocacy performance. The overall International Extension Network Advocacy Capacity (IENAC) scale, and associated subscales were all found to have acceptable levels of validity.

Decentralized Agricultural Extension and Social Networks: The Potential for Agricultural Information and Technology Dissemination in Sri Lanka

Policymakers in Sri Lanka are seeking for cost-effective extension systems due to poor governance and limited budgets of current agricultural extension programs. Recently, there has been increasing interest in social learning as a mean of technology dissemination at a low cost. Therefore, this paper reviews the literature related to social learning and social-network-based agricultural extension (SNBAE) in developing countries to identify its possibility in information and technology dissemination in Sri Lanka. Furthermore, it looks at the present agriculture extension system of the food crop sector in Sri Lanka to clarify the potential of SNBAE for information and technology flow to the grassroot level. The review of the literature shows that SNBAE has positive effects on the effectiveness of knowledge and skill transfer to peers and neighbours. The overview of the agricultural extension systems in food crop sector in Sri Lanka shows that the decentralized agricultural extension system implemented from 1989 failed to bridge the agricultural information and technology gap, especially due to insufficiency of agricultural extension officers at the village level. However, the analysis of agricultural extension system of food crop sector shows that SNBAE has succeeded to some degree in narrowing the information and technology gap between extension officers and rural small-scale farmers.

English

Evidence suggests that a lack of extension agents impedes the effective delivery of agricultural extension services in Malawi and many other developing nations. The purpose of this study was to examine the initiatives taken by the Malawi Forum for Agricultural Advisory Services Delivery (MaFAAS) to address the extension shortage. The research questions were addressed using a qualitative case study approach. MaFAAS and other partners launched an initiative to teach youth from local communities, particularly in rural regions, in agricultural extension so that they can serve their communities in positions comparable to extension agents. The effort resulted in the hiring of 427 extension agents to serve in their areas. While recruiting extension agents alone will not address the problem immediately, it is a start. The beneficial consequences of the Malawian organizations&#39; partnership give an opportunity and potential paradigm for addressing the extension shortfall and difficulties farmers confront in Malawi and beyond. Key words: Advocacy, collective action, extension networks, access, policy, professionalization.