Extended Growth Period Research Articles

Assessing the effects of early and timely sowing on wheat cultivar HD 2967 under current and future tropospheric ozone scenarios

This study investigates the impact of elevated ozone (eO3) levels on the growth and yield of the wheat cultivar HD 2967 under different sowing dates in open-top chambers. Wheat was sown early on November 1st and timely on November 20th, 2017, under ambient and elevated O3 (ambient + 20 ppb), resulting in four treatment groups: AT (ambient + timely), ET (elevated + timely), AE (ambient + early), and EE (elevated + early). Results showed significant reductions in morphological traits and gas-exchange parameters, including photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, and water use efficiency under eO3. The most notable decreases were observed 40 days after germination (DAG) compared to 80 DAG. Interestingly, while a higher percentage reduction was observed under ET at 80 DAG, a reversal in the trend of percentage reduction between the two stages was noted, suggesting a dynamic response of the wheat cultivar to stress across the growth stage. However, compared with ET's results, early sowing mitigated these negative effects under a futuristic O3 level scenario, showing no significant impact on grain yield and productivity factors. This resilience is attributed to the extended growth period, enhancing photosynthesis and biomass accumulation while avoiding high eO3 concentrations during critical reproductive stages. Furthermore, a trade-off in ET plants suggests resources are allocated towards defense (enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants) at the expense of growth, while EE conditions favor growth at later stages, maintaining reproductive fitness despite eO3 levels. Under conventional timely sowing, wheat may suffer yield declines of up to 30 % amidst rising eO3 levels. Early sowing emerges as a proactive strategy to maintain wheat productivity under increasing O3 stress. Future studies should explore the effectiveness of early sowing across multiple wheat cultivars and climatic conditions to inform sustainable agricultural practices in high O3 areas.

Success of introduction of species of the genus <i>Cotoneaster</i> Medik. in the Komi Republic

Among the woody plants preserved and studied in the arboretum of the Botanical Garden of the Institute of Biology of the Komi Scientific Center of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences for nine years (2013–2021) include representatives of the polymorphic genus Cotoneaster of different geographical origins. As a result of generalization and analysis of data on biomorphology, characteristics of the generative period, dynamics of seasonal growth and development, winter hardiness of plants of species of the genus Cotoneaster introduced in the North, based on an assessment of the main indicators of viability, the studied plants were divided into groups of prospects for cultivation in the northern region. Plants of Eurasian origin C. melanocarpus and C. integerrimus, which undergo a full cycle of seasonal development, are characterized by high winter hardiness, form full-fledged seeds and retain their vital form under introduction conditions, are classified in Group I as quite promising. The East Asian species C. dammeri, C. horizontalis are assigned to the II group of promising plants and C. ascendens to the III group of unpromising plants. These introduced species were characterized by an extended period of growth and development, late completion of the growing season, low winter hardiness, but good shoot recovery ability after winter damage. C. bullatus turned out to be an unpromising species (group V) with low winter hardiness, and therefore the impossibility of transition to the generative period of development. Additional study of this decorative species with the involvement of other specimens is necessary. Based on the data obtained, species such as C. melanocarpus, C. integerrimus, C. dammeri and C. horizontalis can be recommended for cultivation and use in landscaping in some areas of the Komi Republic.

Does digital technology advancement promote natural resource utilization efficiency?

While China has experienced an extended period of remarkable economic growth, certain industries have faced challenges such as high pollution, energy consumption, and emissions. To address these issues, China has set strategic goals for promoting harmonious coexistence between humans and nature in the new era. As a result, enhancing the efficiency of natural resource utilization has become crucial for achieving sustainable development. In line with this objective, this paper investigates the role of digital technology advancement as a pathway to improve the efficiency of e-government and natural resource utilization. This paper employs the Slacks-Based Measure (SBM) model to calculate the efficiency of natural resource utilization in 276 cities from 2010 to 2020. Utilizing Broadband China's pilot policy, the study employs differences-in-differences and propensity score matching to investigate the impact and mechanism of digital technology progress on natural resource utilization efficiency. The results indicate that the progress in digital technology significantly promotes the efficiency of natural resource utilization, a conclusion that holds even after a series of robustness tests. Mechanism analysis suggests that the progress in digital technology primarily influences resource efficiency by upgrading industrial structures and innovating green technologies. Heterogeneity analysis reveals that the positive impact of digital technology progress on natural resource utilization efficiency is more pronounced in cities with lower political hierarchies, larger population sizes, non-resource-based economies, and those not classified as old industrial bases. This paper expands the research scope of natural resource utilization efficiency and provides specific policy recommendations.

Effects of social environments on male primate HPG and HPA axis developmental programming.

Developmental plasticity is particularly important for humans and other primates because of our extended period of growth and maturation, during which our phenotypes adaptively respond to environmental cues. The hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) and hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axes are likely to be principal targets of developmental "programming" given their roles in coordinating fitness-relevant aspects of the phenotype, including sexual development, adult reproductive and social strategies, and internal responses to the external environment. In social animals, including humans, the social environment is believed to be an important source of cues to which these axes may adaptively respond. The effects of early social environments on the HPA axis have been widely studied in humans, and to some extent, in other primates, but there are still major gaps in knowledge specifically relating to males. There has also been relatively little research examining the role that social environments play in developmental programming of the HPG axis or the HPA/HPG interface, and what does exist disproportionately focuses on females. These topics are likely understudied in males in part due to the difficulty of identifying developmental milestones in males relative to females and the general quiescence of the HPG axis prior to maturation. However, there are clear indicators that early life social environments matter for both sexes. In this review, we examine what is known about the impact of social environments on HPG and HPA axis programming during male development in humans and nonhuman primates, including the role that epigenetic mechanisms may play in this programming. We conclude by highlighting important next steps in this research area.

Regulation of photoassimilate transportation and nitrogen uptake to decrease greenhouse gas emissions in ratooning rice with higher economic return by optimized nitrogen supplies

Mechanized harvesting of the main crop rice, with low stubble height in rice ratooning is scaling up, especially in Southeast China with a higher population density and less cultivated land. Currently, the common nitrogen fertilization for ratoon rice is concentrated within 20 days before and after the harvest of the main crop. However, this fertilization pattern may not be suitable for low stubble regenerative rice due to its extended growth period, leading to diminished nitrogen utilization efficiency and heightened greenhouse gas emissions, particularly nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. It is imperative to explore a nitrogen fertilizer management model for clean production of low stubble ratoon rice (RR). In this study, we examined the effects of nitrogen fertilizer application rates and methods (single or split application) on yield and greenhouse gas emissions during the regrowth season. We employed a multi-criteria assessment approach combined with field measurements, energy analysis, environmental assessment, and economic evaluation on ratoon rice under various nitrogen fertilizer treatments. The results showed that the ratoon rice produced the highest total energy output under 67.5 N+22.5 N (Fertilize with 67.5 kg nitrogen ha−1 and 22.5 kg nitrogen ha−1 3 days after main season rice harvesting and during the heading stage of ratoon rice) treatment compared to the 90 N+0 N (conventional fertilization, apply 90 kg nitrogen ha−1 fertilizer 3 days after harvesting at once) treatment. It was also found that reducing nitrogen application during the tillering stage reduced CH4 emissions, fertilization during the heading stage of the ratoon rice did not increase CH4 emissions, Since fertilization during the heading stage of ratoon rice did not lead to an increase in the partitioning of photoassimilates (photosynthetic product assimilates) to the rhizosphere soil, significant differences in sugar and acetic acid levels were not observed in the rhizosphere soil. As a result, no change was found in the expression of the methanogenic mcrA gene in the microbial community. The study also demonstrated that the 67.5 N+22.5 N treatment was able to promote the absorption of nitrogen nutrients, reduction in N2O emissions by 16.61%, subsequently increasing resource use efficiency, final yield and net ecosystem economic benefit by 5.96%, 7.19% and 5.57%, respectively, thereby decreasing carbon and nitrogen footprints by 6.64% and 3.50% compared with the 90 N+0 N treatment in the ratoon rice. These results suggest that a reasonable ratoon rice cultivation scheme is a promising farming system that can simultaneously improve resource use efficiency and economic profits, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and environmental footprint, while still maintaining the high productivity in ratoon rice.

Deconstructing co-occurring marine heatwave and phytoplankton bloom events in the Arkona Sea in 2018

Between May and August 2018, two separate marine heatwaves (MHWs) occurred in the Arkona Sea in the western Baltic Sea. These heatwaves bookended an extended period of phytoplankton growth in the region. Data from the Ocean and Land Colour Instrument (OLCI) on board the European Sentinel-3 satellite revealed an eddy-like structure containing high chlorophyll a (Chl-a) concentrations (ca. 25 mg.m-3) persisting for several days at the end of May in the Arkona Sea. Combining ocean colour observations, a coupled bio-optical ocean model and a particle tracking model, we examined the three dimensional relationship between these co-occurring MHW and phytoplankton bloom events. We find that the onset of the MHW in May provided the optimal conditions for phytoplankton growth, i.e. sufficient light and nutrients. Wind-driven surface eddy circulation, geostrophic eddy stirring and transient submesoscale dynamics along the edges of the eddy provided a transport path for nutrient fluxes and carbon export, and helped to sustain the phytoplankton bloom. The bloom may have indirectly had an enhancing effect on the MHW, through the impact of water constituent-induced heating rates on air-sea energy fluxes. The subsurface signature of the MHW plays a critical role in de-coupling surface and subsurface dynamics and terminating the phytoplankton bloom. Subsurface temperature anomalies of up to 8°C between 15 and 20 m depth are found to persist up to 15 days after the surface signature of the MHW has disappeared. The study reveals how surface and subsurface dynamics of MHWs and phytoplankton blooms are connected under different environmental conditions. It extends our knowledge on surface layer processes obtained from satellite data.

Comparative Assessment of In Vitro Xanthine Oxidase and α-Glucosidase Inhibitory Activities of Cultured Cambial Meristematic Cells, Adventitious Roots, and Field-Cultivated Ginseng.

Panax ginseng, a traditional Chinese medicine with a history spanning thousands of years, faces overexploitation and challenges related to extended growth periods. Tissue-cultured adventitious roots and stem cells are alternatives to wild and field-cultivated ginseng. In this study, we assessed the in vitro xanthine oxidase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities of saponin extracts among cultured cambial meristematic cells (CMC), adventitious ginseng roots (AGR), and field-cultivated ginseng roots (CGR). The xanthine oxidase (XO) and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities were determined by uric acid estimation and the p-NPG method, respectively. Spectrophotometry and the Folin-Ciocalteu, aluminum nitrate, and Bradford methods were employed to ascertain the total saponins and phenolic, flavonoid, and protein contents. The calculated IC50 values for total saponin extracts against XO and α-glucosidase were 0.665, 0.844, and >1.6 mg/mL and 0.332, 0.745, and 0.042 mg/mL for AGR, CMC, CGR, respectively. Comparing the total saponin, crude protein, and total phenolic contents revealed that AGR > CMC > CGR. To the best of our knowledge, this study presents the first report on the in vitro comparison of xanthine oxidase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities among AGR, CMC, and CGR. The findings offer valuable insights into the development of hypoglycemic and antihyperuricemic medicinal, nutraceutical, and functional products utilizing AGR and CMC.

Simulating the effects of optimizing sowing date and variety shift on maize production at finer scale in northeast China under future climate.

Global warming and the rising occurrences of climate extremes have become formidable challenges for maize production in northeast China. The optimization of sowing date and variety choice stand out as two economic approaches for maize to enhance its resilience to climate change. Nevertheless, assessment of the potential of optimizing sowing date and variety shift on maize yield at finer scale remains underexamined. This study investigated the implications of optimizing sowing date and implementing variety shift on maize yield from a regional perspective. Compared to the reference period (1986-2005), climate change would decrease by 11.5-34.6% (the range describes the differences among climate scenarios and agro-ecological regions) maize yield in the 2050s (2040-2059) if no adaption measure were to be implemented. The combined adaption (optimizing sowing date and variety shift) can improve maize yield by 38.8 ± 11.3%, 42.7 ± 9.7% and 33.9 ± 7.6% under the SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5 scenarios, respectively. The current sowing window typically falls within the projected optimal sowing window, defined as the period capable of achieving 90% of the maximum yield within the potential sowing window under future climate conditions. Consequently, the potential of the effect of optimizing sowing window on maize yield is limited. In contrast, variety shift results in higher yield improvement, as temperature rise creates favorable conditions for transplanting varieties with an extended growth period, particularly in high latitudes and mountainous regions. Under future climate, cumulative precipitation and compound drought and hot days during maize growing seasons are two key factors influencing maize production. The optimization of sowing date and variety choice can improve maize yield in northeast China. In addition, maize production should consider varieties with longer growth period and drought and heat tolerance to adapt to climate change. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Lettuce seed germination in the presence of microplastic contamination

Microplastic pollution is a pressing environmental issue, particularly in the context of its potential impacts on ecosystems and human health. Given the prevalence of microplastics in the environment and their known effects on altering plant physiological processes, such as water retention and chlorophyll balance, understanding their interaction with edible plants is crucial. In this study, we explored the ability of plants, specifically those cultivated for human consumption, to absorb microplastics from their growing medium. We hypothesized that microplastics would be detectable within the plant roots, particularly under stress conditions induced by root damage. However, we found no evidence of microplastic absorption in both intact and mechanically damaged roots. This outcome suggests that microplastics larger than 10 μm may not be readily absorbed by the root systems of leafy crops such as lettuce (L. sativa). The study acknowledges limitations in the particle size and growth period examined, indicating that future research with a broader range of microplastic sizes and extended growth periods could provide further insights. The findings underscore the importance of continued investigation into the interactions between microplastics and plant systems, offering a reassuring perspective on the safety of consuming leafy greens in the context of microplastic pollution. This study contributes to the growing body of knowledge on the environmental dynamics of microplastics, emphasizing the need for comprehensive strategies to address their widespread presence.

Accouterments of organic pollution on autotomy and regeneration of Sesarma boulengeri (Calman, 1920) in Shatt al-Arab, Basrah, Iraq

Sesarma boulangeri (Calman 1920), a type of freshwater invertebrate, was collected between January and December 2022 from three stations at the Shatt AL-Arab River, Basrah/ Iraq in order to conduct the research. The goal of the study was to determine the effect of organic pollution on autotomy in this species of crab. The organisms were subjected to varying levels of organic contamination in the river that came from sewage, farming activities, boat traffic, and transportation of products and oil derivatives using the organic pollution index (OPI). The left fifth leg's object was the reason for the autotomy. According to the characteristics of the water quality impacted by the oscillation, the cut creatures have varied indicators in response to the aquatic species. As a result, an extended period of growth for the regenerated portions is caused by the rise in organic contaminants in the water. Thus, the present findings indicate that S. boulengeri exposed to high amounts of organic pollution has a slower rate of replacing the cut component than control animals, that the growing bud is more vulnerable to distortion, and that the period of compensating for the cut part is longer. According to the OPI result shows that the first station has significant difference (P<0.05) as compared to the sconed and third stations wish did not difference.

Prediction of the breeding value of leaf lettuce mutant lines according to the correlation between the manifestation of qualitative and quantitative traits

Aim. To establish the effect of mutagenic factors on the formation of qualitative traits, defining the phenotype of the leaf blade, and to investigate the correlation between the manifestation of these factors and the variation of quantitative traits of breeding value in mutant lines of leaf lettuce. Methods. Non-parametric statistical and criteria of difference for biological specimens, computational and analytical calculations, correlation analysis. Results. The comparative analysis was conducted on the qualitative characteristics of the original leaf blade form of leaf lettuce, Zhnych variety, alongside 14 mutant lines derived from it through the application of mutagenic agents, including dimethyl sulfate (DMS) and its derivatives (D3MU, DMU-10А, and DMU-9) in two varying concentrations. Notably, the derivatives of DMS exhibited superior mutagenic efficiency, leading to a four to fivefold increase in the number of mutant plant forms compared to the reference compound DMS. Among the derivatives, D3MU proved the most effective, generat- ing five mutant lines. In contrast, DMU-10A and DMU-9 yielded four mutant lines, while DMS produced only one mutant line. All mutant lines exhibited distinct variations from the initial form across 17 qualitative characteristics determining leaf blade phenotype. The analysis of Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient (rs) demonstrated weak to moderate correlation (rs = –0.08...0.62) between the original form and mutant lines. It was determined that three lettuce lines, namely B-7, B-22, and B-38, exhibited the most significant deviations from the initial form in term of leaf blade qualitative traits. Furthermore, it was established that non-parametric indicators of qualitative traits expression exhibited moderate or high correlation (rs = 0.57...0.74) with an essential quantitative trait – the duration from the emergence of mass shoots to plant stem development in mutant lines. Conclusions. The identified correlations between quantitative and qualitative traits provide the opportunity to predictably select mutant genotypes with extended growth period during the early stages of lettuce plant ontogenesis in future breeding work.

A novel in vitro model to study prolonged Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in the cystic fibrosis bronchial epithelium.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) is known to chronically infect airways of people with cystic fibrosis (CF) by early adulthood. PA infections can lead to increased airway inflammation and lung tissue damage, ultimately contributing to decreased lung function and quality of life. Existing models of PA infection in vitro commonly utilize 1-6-hour time courses. However, these relatively early time points may not encompass downstream airway cell signaling in response to the chronic PA infections observed in people with cystic fibrosis. To fill this gap in knowledge, the aim of this study was to establish an in vitro model that allows for PA infection of CF bronchial epithelial cells, cultured at the air liquid interface, for 24 hours. Our model shows with an inoculum of 2 x 102 CFUs of PA for 24 hours pro-inflammatory markers such as interleukin 6 and interleukin 8 are upregulated with little decrease in CF bronchial epithelial cell survival or monolayer confluency. Additionally, immunoblotting for phosphorylated phospholipase C gamma, a well-known downstream protein of fibroblast growth factor receptor signaling, showed significantly elevated levels after 24 hours with PA infection that were not seen at earlier timepoints. Finally, inhibition of phospholipase C shows significant downregulation of interleukin 8. Our data suggest that this newly developed in vitro "prolonged PA infection model" recapitulates the elevated inflammatory markers observed in CF, without compromising cell survival. This extended period of PA growth on CF bronchial epithelial cells will have impact on further studies of cell signaling and microbiological studies that were not possible in previous models using shorter PA exposures.

The Peril of Peaking Powers: Economic Slowdowns and Implications for China's Next Decade

Abstract From ancient times to the present, rising powers have taken up arms to reorder the world. Yet such violent revisionism poses a puzzle: If a rising power is profiting from the existing order, why would it disrupt that progress with a reckless fit of expansion? One reason is slowing economic growth. Over the past 150 years, peaking powers, meaning rising powers whose economic booms have slowed but not yet stopped, have been the most dangerous kind of country. An extended period of rapid growth equipped them with the means to shake up the world, and then a protracted growth slowdown motivated them to move aggressively to try to rekindle their rise. Peaking power dynamics help explain some of the most consequential geopolitical events in modern history, including the surge of U.S. imperialism in the late nineteenth century, the outbreak of World War II, and Russia's 2014 aggression against Ukraine. These findings amend classic theories of great power conflict and have ominous implications for contemporary Chinese foreign policy.

On the development of descriptors in small bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L. var. muricata (Willd.) Chakrav)

Small bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L. var. muricata (Willd.) Chakrav.) is an under-utilized vegetable with ethnobotanical and therapeutic values, under domestication interphase. This taxon deserves a distinct crop status, owing to the existence of well-marked distinguishing morphological traits, unique flavour and taste apart from M. charantia var. charantia, wide variability within the taxon, preferential cultivation by the traditional farmers in Indian subcontinent and occurrence of distinct, named landraces. However, presently this crop is facing a threat of genetic erosion, restricting mostly at the homestead level throughout the region. In the present study, seventy-four small bitter gourd collections from across India were assessed for understanding morphological variability and their classification, and further devising key descriptors helpful for effective characterization and utilization. In order to describe it under a distinct taxon level, botanical description is also worked out. Morphological traits such as shape and lobing of leaf, shape and size of fruit, nature of tubercles and ridges, and size, shape and colour of seeds, besides robustness and extended growth period, showed remarkable character differentiation from cultivated bitter gourd. A set of 45 characterization and 35 evaluation descriptors have been developed, out of which 27 characterization and 26 evaluation descriptors are categorized under the minimum descriptor list.

Growth trajectories of wild Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis) determined from parallel laser photogrammetry

Socioecological factors are associated with life-history patterns and growth trajectories among primates. Under certain conditions, selection may favor a temporal decoupling of growth and major life-history events such as sexual maturation or natal dispersal. Yet, empirical tests of these associations in wild populations remain scarce owing to the lack of non-invasive methods to capture growth trajectories. In this study, we first compared two non-invasive methods of digital photogrammetry. Then, we used parallel laser photogrammetry to investigate forearm growth of wild Assamese macaque males and females in their natural habitat at Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand to test life-history and socio-ecological hypotheses. Across 48 males and 44 females, we estimated growth trajectories and pseudo-velocity curves by applying quadratic plateau models and non-parametric LOESS regressions. We assessed the development of sexual dimorphism by comparing the sexes at five different ages. Females had completed 96% of their growth at the age at first birth (5.9 years) and ceased growing at 7.1 years of age. Males, in contrast, grew until well after their average age of natal dispersal: they reached 81% of their size at the age of natal dispersal (4.0 years), and ceased growing only at 9.0 years of age, much later than females. Sexual dimorphism in forearm length was driven by an extended growth period in males, which is expected for males dispersing between multimale and multifemale groups and not facing the risk of being ousted by other larger males. Our results contradict the neonatal investment hypothesis that predicts a desynchronization of investment in growth and reproduction only in female baboons, but not other papionins producing cheaper neonates. Furthermore, male Assamese macaques do not delay natal dispersal until they are fully grown, in accordance with predictions of the male-career-framework for species with low to medium level of direct competition.

Optimizing plastic mulching improves the growth and increases grain yield and water use efficiency of spring maize in dryland of the Loess Plateau in China

Transparent plastic film mulching (PFM) with flat cropping cultivation has been widely applied to grow maize (Zea mays L.) in dryland agricultural production areas of the Loess Plateau in China. However, with global warming-induced gradual increase in soil temperature, film-mulched spring maize experiences premature senescence and yield loss. In this study, a new form of mulching strategy involving dual mulching of transparent plastic film with whole maize stalks in a flat plot was established to improve growth and increase water use efficiency (WUE), precipitation use efficiency (PUE), and spring maize yield. The field experiment was conducted in 20 182 019, and 2020 on a conventional flat plot without mulching (CK), a flat plot with single transparent PFM, and a flat plot of transparent film mulching with whole maize stalks (PFM+ST) in the dryland of the Loess Plateau in China, to quantify the effects of different treatments on soil hydrothermal conditions, maize phenology, plant growth dynamics, WUE, PUE, and maize yield. Results demonstrated that soil water storage (SWS) at 0–100 cm soil layer in PFM and PFM+ST were significantly superior to those in CK, but SWS did not significantly differ between PFM and PFM+ST. Soil temperature under PFM+ST at 0–25 cm soil layer decreased by 1.2 ℃ compared with that under PFM during growth, especially in early growing seasons (20–60 days after sowing [DAS]). PFM+ST extended vegetative and reproductive growth periods by 1–2 and 6–7 days compared with those in PFM, respectively. In later growth period (80–120 DAS), PFM+ST increased the root dry matter weight, SPAD, and LAI and significantly increased the aboveground dry matter accumulation. PFM+ST significantly increased the 100-kernel dry weight, grain yield, WUE, and PUE. PFM+ST had 3-year average grain yields of 10.82% and 36.48% greater than PFM and CK, respectively. The corresponding WUE and in 0–200 cm soil layer improved by 12.55% and 39.84%, and PUE improved by 10.82% and 36.48%, respectively. With global warming, applying PFM+ST cultivation practice effectively extended growth period and increased mulching spring maize yield and WUE in the study site.

Nitrogen and density treatment to improve resource utilization and yield in late sowing <italic>japonica</italic> rice

<p id="C3">Recently, the phenomenon of late sowing and late transplanting in rice is becoming more and more common in central Jiangsu, a rice and wheat double cropping system area, which is caused by climate change and the expanding of comprehensive rice-and-shrimp planting model. It will lead to the mismatch of rice growth period with light and temperature resources, restricting the stable high yield of rice. This study was conducted under the condition of late sowing and late transplanting (sowing date was June 12th, transplanting date was June 30th) and the seedling was transplanted by machine. Four nitrogen application rates (N₀: 0 kg hm^-2; N₂₄₀: 240 kg hm^-2; N₃₀₀: 300 kg hm^-2; N₃₆₀: 360 kg hm^-2) and three density treatments (D₃: 3 seedlings per hole; D₄: 4 seedlings per hole; D₅: 5 seedlings per hole) were arranged, and the suitable sowing period (May 29), conventional nitrogen application rate, and the seedling number per hole (N₃₀₀D₄) were taken as the controls. Our goal is to explore the effects of nitrogen fertilizer and seedling number per hole on the growth and yield formation in late-sown <italic>japonica</italic> rice, and to provide theoretical basis for improving yield potential and resource use efficiency in late sowing and late transplanting <italic>japonica</italic> rice in central Jiangsu province. The results showed that compared with CK, the yield of each treatment decreased, mainly because of the significantly reduced spikelet number under the late sowing and late transplanting condition. The highest spikelet numbers were 11.94% and 8.12% lower than those of CK in the two years. In addition, the utilization rate of temperature and light resources, nitrogen uptake, and nitrogen utilization rate decreased under late sowing and late transplanting treatment, leading to a decrease in dry matter accumulation and yield. The yield increased with the increase of nitrogen application rate and seedling number per hole under the late sowing and late transplanting condition, while there was no consistent with the trend under N₃₆₀D₅ treatment. We assumed that it was mainly due to the increased spikelet number, larger leaf area index at heading stage, the larger proportion of efficient leaf, and the extended growth period. In summary, the utilization of temperature and light resources and the dry matter accumulation at maturity stage was improved, and the decline in yield was alleviated. Nitrogen use efficiency increased first and then decreased with the increase of nitrogen rate, and N₃₀₀D₅ treatment reached the maximum. In general, under the late sowing and late transplanting condition, in order to alleviate the yield loss and reduce nitrogen fertilizer waste, we should increase the seedling number per hole and then increase the amount of nitrogen fertilizer.

Construction of integrative transcriptome to boost systematic exploration of Bougainvillea

Members of the genus Bougainvillea are rich sources of natural dyes, pigments, and traditional medicines. They are also commonly used as ornamentals in roadside landscape construction. However, the horticultural development of Bougainvillea flowers with extended growth periods and coloration is not always feasible. One reason is limited molecular knowledge and no genomic information for Bougainvillea. Here, we compiled an integrative transcriptome of all expressed transcripts for Bougainvillea × buttiana Miss Manila by integrating 20 Illumina-sequencing RNA transcriptomes. The integrative transcriptome consisted of 97,623 distinct transcripts. Of these, 47,006 were protein-coding, 31,109 were non-coding, and 19,508 were unannotated. In addition, we affirmed that the integrative transcriptome could serve as a surrogate reference to the genome in aiding accurate transcriptome assembly. For convenience, we curated the integrative transcriptome database for Bougainvillea, namely InTransBo, which can be freely accessed at http://www.bio-add.org/InTransBo/index.jsp. To the best of our knowledge, the present study is the most comprehensive genomic resource for Bougainvillea up-to-date. The integrative transcriptome helps fill the genomic gap and elucidate the transcriptional nature of Bougainvillea. It may also advance progress in the precise regulation of flowering in horticulture. The same strategy can be readily applied toward the systematic exploration of other plant species lacking complete genomic information.

Growth of Neanderthal infants from Krapina (120-130 ka), Croatia.

Modern humans have a slow and extended period of childhood growth, but to what extent this ontogenetic pathway was present in Neanderthals is debated. Dental development, linked to the duration of somatic growth across modern primates, is the main source for information about growth and development in a variety of fossil primates, including humans. Studies of Neanderthal permanent teeth report a pace of development either similar to recent humans or relatively accelerated. Neanderthal milk teeth, which form and emerge before permanent teeth, provide an opportunity to determine which pattern was present at birth. Here we present a comparative study of the prenatal and early postnatal growth of five milk teeth from three Neanderthals (120 000-130 000 years ago) using virtual histology. Results reveal regions of their milk teeth formed quickly before birth and over a relatively short period of time after birth. Tooth emergence commenced towards the earliest end of the eruption schedules displayed by extant human children. Advanced dental development is consistent with expectations for Neanderthal infant feeding.

Capital Allocation and Corporate Strategy: An Examination of the Oil &amp; Gas Majors

The authors present the findings of their study of the capital spending and cash distributions of the five largest publicly traded integrated oil and gas companies (ExxonMobil, Chevron, BP, Shell, and Total) over the past two decades. Deploying capital in the execution of strategy and achieving the proper balance between reinvesting in the business and returning capital to shareholders is particularly challenging in one of the world's most capital intensive industries. The practices of the five companies differed markedly despite similarities in business lines and international operations.The study explores the different periods of industry growth and performance between 1998 and 2018, when the industry went through an extended period of stable growth (1998‐2008), followed by an extended period of stagnant growth in reserves and production despite extensive spending on capital expenditures. A key finding is that despite spending more than $1.8 trillion over the 20‐year period, the five supermajors were unable to expand production. The authors found that what little growth did occur was the result of acquisitions.Capital allocation decisions by the five majors differed markedly in their cash returns to shareholders. Although all five firms maintained their commitments to shareholder dividends, ExxonMobil deployed massive and continued allocations of capital to share repurchases. Both dividends and share repurchases had mixed results in supporting corporate share prices.The authors attribute the difficulty the majors had in generating profitable growth partly to the inherent challenges of a depleting industry and partly to the selection of capital investments—their timing and cycle length. The historical experience of the majors in dealing with large oil price cycles drove all five to maintain capital expenditures in the post‐2008 financial crisis period. Only when oil prices plunged in 2014 did the majors conclude that the decline was a transformative shift requiring a reconsideration of capital allocation and capital expenditures. The study notes that acquisitions, particularly ExxonMobil's acquisition of XTO, depressed market values despite some of the highest share repurchasing levels across U.S. industry.