Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling Model Research Articles

Psychopathic Traits in Adult versus Adolescent Males: Measurement Invariance across the PCL-R and PCL:YV.

Both the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) and the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV), respectively, are established instruments for assessment of psychopathy and development of psychopathic propensity. To reliably compare scores from both instruments, measurement invariance must be established. The current study involved a combined sample of 1091 male participants (adults = 813; adolescents = 278) from correctional facilities in New Mexico. An exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) framework was used to test for measurement invariance. The four-factor ESEM model demonstrated good fit for the combined and individual samples. Results from the multiple group ESEM provide evidence for generally strong invariance, with equivalent factor loadings and thresholds. Adolescents exhibited decreased latent interpersonal traits but increased latent features on other PCL factors (affective, lifestyle, and antisocial) compared to adults. Findings suggest that the four-factor model and the measurement of psychopathic traits remain consistent across age groups. Implications of the findings within research and clinical contexts are discussed.

The Effort-Reward Imbalance Questionnaire for Teachers: Psychometric Properties Using the Bifactor ESEM Framework

This study is aimed at validating the French version of the Effort-Reward Imbalance Questionnaire for Teachers. The instrument was pretested before being administered in a large-scale study with elementary school teachers. Dimensionality of the instrument was examined using the bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) framework. The bifactor ESEM model showed the best fitting indices and parameters. Importantly, results suggested the existence of a continuum for ERI data concerning elementary teachers. The instrument showed concurrent validity with several measures of mental health, job satisfaction and work-life balance.

The Event-Related Rumination Inventory: How Does Scale Validity Change with Time Instructions?

Two types of rumination following a traumatic event can be identified: intrusive and deliberate rumination. Intrusive rumination is defined as a series of intrusive and undesired thoughts, whereas deliberate rumination is characterized by voluntary repetitive thoughts that help make sense of the experience. The Event-Related Rumination Inventory (ERRI) is an instrument capable of assessing both types of rumination. This study aimed to define the best modality of administration for the ERRI, by comparing the two original time frame instructions (immediate vs recent) and examining its psychometric properties in an Italian sample. To achieve this goal, 601 participants who experienced a trauma at different times (subsample 1: 1 year maximum; subsample 2: more than 1 year) were recruited and asked to complete an online survey assessing the following constructs: rumination, post-traumatic growth, post-traumatic stress and depressive symptoms. ERRI’s reliability and validity were evaluated using the exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) method, i.e. combining the power and flexibility of traditional confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses. The ESEM model for the “recent” time frame achieved the best indices in terms of goodness of fit. The correlation network revealed significant connections with related constructs, indicating the validity of intrusive and deliberate scores. Finally, the two dimensions of the scale demonstrated a significant ability to discriminate both intrusive and deliberate rumination as participants moved away from the time of the trauma. ERRI has shown very good psychometric properties and appears to be a good instrument to assess ruminative processing after a highly stressful event.

Aspects of Identity Questionnaire-IV: An Examination of Structural Validity, Gender Invariance, and Relationships with Mental Health and Basic Psychological Needs Among Adolescents

The present research evaluated evidence for structural and convergent validity and measurement invariance across gender of the Aspects of Identity Questionnaire-IV (AIQ-IV), which is designed to measure four identity orientations: Personal, Relational, Public, and Collective. We recruited two independent samples of Serbian adolescents aged 15–19 years (n 1 = 436, n 2 = 452). Both exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were applied to examine the factor structure of the AIQ-IV. The ESEM model with four factors demonstrated a superior fit to the data in both samples and resulted in well-defined factors and deflated latent factor correlations compared to the CFA model. Multiple-group analysis supported the scalar invariance of the four-factor ESEM model across gender. The evidence for the convergent validity of the ESEM AIQ-IV factors was supported by meaningful correlations with various mental health indicators (life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect, internalizing behaviors, and externalizing behaviors) and basic psychological needs (autonomy, relatedness, and competence) satisfaction and frustration. Our findings support the use of AIQ-IV as a multidimensional measure of identity orientations among adolescents and confirm the usefulness of applying the ESEM framework to evaluate the validity aspects of this scale.

Conceptualization and measurement of foreign language playfulness via exploratory structural equation modeling

The current research sought to conceptualize and measure foreign language playfulness (FLP), a recently developed construct in second language acquisition (SLA), through exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), a recently introduced scale measurement approach. Using a sample of 208 Iranian undergraduate language learners, we employed a series of statistical techniques to examine the underlying structure, best fitting model, psychometric properties, measurement invariance, and factor correlation of a new measure of FLP. Findings showed that bifactor EFA, compared with EFA, provided better representation for the underlying structure of the FLPS. Multiple model comparisons indicated that the bifactor ESEM model had a more satisfying representation of the FLPS than the other models (CFA, bifactor CFA, and ESEM). Cronbach's α and omega (ω) demonstrated that the FLPS is a reliable instrument. The bifactor ESEM model of the FLPS was also invariant across genders. Finally, factor correlation in ESEM exhibited a more accurate reflection of the association between the two factors (intellectual playfulness and other-directed playfulness) of the FLPS. The results were discussed by highlighting the importance of using ESEM to validate psychological constructs in SLA.

The dimensionality of L2 teacher self-regulation strategies and its interactions with teacher self-efficacy: Exploratory structural equation modeling

Teacher self-regulation plays a critical role in effective teaching and professional success. It is not only deemed to be a path to professional development but also a prerequisite to cultivating students' self-regulatory capacity. However, our understanding of in-service second/foreign language (L2) teachers' self-regulation strategies is insufficient. This study aimed to address gaps in the literature by exploring the factorial structure of self-regulation strategies for teaching among L2 teachers in China. Grounded in sociocognitive theory, we proposed a multidimensional structure of self-regulation strategies for teaching and made methodological innovations by using rigorous statistical methods including exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) and bifactor ESEM to measure the construct-relevant multidimensionality of teacher self-regulation strategies. The study collected data from a sample of 242 in-service L2 teachers across 18 universities in various regions of China. Model comparisons confirmed the ESEM model with the best fit, accounting for 12 specific teaching strategies (i.e., organization, elaboration, critical thinking, goal setting, self-evaluation, self-monitoring, motivational self-talk, emotional regulation, interest enhancement, collective teacher commitment, seeking help and resources, and time and environment management). These specific teaching strategies with moderate correlations confirmed the multidimensional structure of teacher self-regulation entailing cognition, metacognition, motivation, and social behavior. In addition, L2 teachers’ self-regulation strategies were closely connected to their sense of efficacy in classroom management, student engagement, and instructional strategies, supporting the criterion validity.

Iranian adaptation of the Epistemic Trust, Mistrust, and Credulity Questionnaire (ETMCQ): Validity, reliability, discriminant ability, and sex invariance.

Epistemic trust, or trust in transmitted knowledge, has been proposed as a critical factor in psychopathology and psychotherapy. This study aimed at evaluating the psychometric properties of the Epistemic Trust, Mistrust, and Credulity Questionnaire (ETMCQ) in Iran. Data were collected from 906 participants. Along with the ETMCQ, measures of mentalizing, mindfulness, perspective-taking, attachment, emotion dysregulation, and borderline personality disorder were administered. Confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) were used to determine factorial structure. The ESEM model showed an acceptable fit and outperformed the confirmatory model. A 14-item version of the ETMCQ was retained after examining item performance. Our findings also established criterion-related validity for mistrust and credulity, an acceptable internal consistency for credulity, discriminant power for mistrust and credulity in detecting positive screens for borderline personality disorder, and measurement invariance across sexes. This study provides evidence for the cross-cultural applicability of the ETMCQ. Nonetheless, the validity of the trust and internal consistency of the mistrust subscale require particular attention in future research.

Are anxiety, depression, and stress distinguishable in Italian adolescents? an examination through the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21.

The adolescents' ability to discriminate between different negative emotional states is still under debate. The Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21 (DASS-21) serves as a useful tool to unravel this issue, yet the literature on its structural validity in young people is ambiguous. Therefore, this study aimed to expand knowledge on the emotional experience of youth by investigating the factor structure and psychometric properties of the DASS-21 in Italian adolescents. Six hundred fifty-five students (60.6% girls) aged 14-18 (M = 16.3 ± 1.29) completed an online survey containing the DASS-21 and Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). To evaluate the factor structure of the DASS-21, several alternative models were tested, also adopting an Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM) procedure. Measurement invariance, reliability, validity, and latent means differences were addressed. The ESEM model with three correlated factors of Depression, Anxiety, and Stress yielded the best fit to the data, supporting a hierarchical structure of the DASS-21. In addition, this model was invariant across sex and age groups. The Anxiety scale predicted both positive and negative affect, while Depression predicted positive affect only. Finally, girls scored higher than boys on Anxiety and Depression, but no age differences emerged. Overall, our results indicate that anxiety, depression, and stress are distinguishable in Italian adolescents but, simultaneously, share an underlying condition of general distress, which may explain the comorbidity between internalizing problems. Such findings are discussed in terms of clinical and preventive implications for the adolescent population.

Applying SEM, Exploratory SEM, and Bayesian SEM to Personality Assessments

Despite the importance of demonstrating and evaluating how structural equation modeling (SEM), exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), and Bayesian structural equation modeling (BSEM) work simultaneously, research comparing these analytic techniques is limited with few studies conducted to systematically compare them to each other using correlated-factor, hierarchical, and bifactor models of personality. In this study, we evaluate the performance of SEM, ESEM, and BSEM across correlated-factor, hierarchical, and bifactor structures and multiple estimation techniques (maximum likelihood, robust weighted least squares, and Bayesian estimation) to test the internal structure of personality. Results across correlated-factor, hierarchical, and bifactor models highlighted the importance of controlling for scale coarseness and allowing small off-target loadings when using maximum likelihood (ML) and robust weighted least squares estimation (WLSMV) and including informative priors (IP) when using Bayesian estimation. In general, Bayesian-IP and WLSMV ESEM models provided noticeably best model fits. This study is expected to serve as a guide for professionals and applied researchers, identify the most appropriate ways to represent the structure of personality, and provide templates for future research into personality and other multidimensional representations of psychological constructs. We provide Mplus code for conducting the demonstrated analyses in the online supplement.

Longitudinal measurement invariance of constructs derived from the addiction cycle.

The Alcohol Addiction Research Domain Criteria (AARDoC) is an organizational framework for assessing heterogeneity in addictive disorders organized across the addiction cycle domains of incentive salience, negative emotionality, and executive functioning and may have benefits for precision medicine. Recent work found pretreatment self-report items mapped onto the addiction cycle domains and predicted 1- and 3-year alcohol use disorder treatment outcomes. Given the potential utility of the addiction cycle domains for predicting relevant treatment outcomes, this study sought to evaluate the longitudinal measurement invariance of the domains. We conducted a secondary analysis of individuals with alcohol use disorder (n = 1,383, 30.9% female, 76.8% non-Hispanic White, 11.2% Hispanic) who participated in the COMBINE study. Eleven items assessed at pre- and posttreatment were included in exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) and longitudinal invariance analyses. The pre- and posttreatment ESEM models had factor loadings consistent with the three addiction cycle domains and fit the data well. The ESEM factor structure was invariant from pre- to posttreatment (representing configural invariance) and metric invariance (factor loadings) was largely supported, but analyses failed to support scalar invariance (item-level thresholds) of the addiction cycle domains. A three-factor structure representing addiction cycle domains can be modeled using brief self-report measures pre- and posttreatment. Individuals demonstrated a downward shift in the level of item endorsement, indicating improvement with treatment. Although this 11-item measure might be useful at baseline for informing treatment decisions, results indicate the need to exercise caution in comparing the addiction cycle domains pre- to posttreatment within persons. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

A guide to exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) and bifactor-ESEM in body image research

Traditionally, assessments of factor validity of body image instruments have relied on exploratory or confirmatory factor analysis. However, the emergence of exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), a resurgence of interest in bifactor models, and the ability to combine both models (bifactor-ESEM) is beginning to shape the future of body image research. For these analytic approaches to truly advance body image research, scholars will need to have a deep understanding of their use and application. To facilitate such understanding, we describe ESEM and bifactor-ESEM models for body image researchers and provide them with the tools they need to apply these methods in their own work. Specifically, we provide an overview of ESEM and bifactor-ESEM models, and describe their broad applicability to body image research. Next, we describe how ESEM and bifactor models can be used and, using an existing dataset of responses to the Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale, demonstrate how ESEM and bifactor-ESEM models can be deployed. To facilitate wider application of these ideas, we provide our Mplus syntax (inputs) in Supplementary Materials. Through this manuscript, we hope to assist researchers to better understand the strengths ESEM and bifactor models, and to use these approaches in their own work.

Measuring the classroom level of the Dynamic Model of Educational Effectiveness through teacher self-report: development and validation of a new instrument

In the Dynamic Model of Educational Effectiveness, classroom-level effectiveness factors are assessed through observations or aggregated students’ ratings. The current study is aimed at developing and validating a complementary teacher self-report instrument of effective practices at classroom level (the DMEE-Class-T). The new instrument showed concurrent validity with the CSS-T. Dimensionality of both instruments was examined using the bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) framework, testing for alternative factorial representations of the data collected in a large-scale study conducted in all Luxembourgish elementary schools. For both instruments, the bifactor-ESEM and ESEM models showed excellent fitting indices and parameters, but the ESEM solution was retained as the best model for parsimony purpose. These results suggest that the eight types of practices assessed through the DMEE-Class-T could be considered as distinct facets of effective teaching practices while taking items cross-loadings into account. Implications for research and teachers’ professional development are discussed.

Testing the latent structure of ICD-11 prolonged grief disorder symptoms in the U.K. adult population: An exploratory structural equation modeling approach.

The latent structure of ICD-11 prolonged grief disorder (PGD), as measured using the International Prolonged Grief Disorder Scale (IPGDS), was assessed in a large general population sample of bereaved adults from the United Kingdom. Data were derived from Wave 5 of the COVID-19 Psychological Research Consortium Study (C19PRC-UK). Exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) was used to assess the latent structure of the IPGDS. Identified factors were explored in relation to known correlates (i.e., gender, age of the bereaved, income, bereavement timeframe, age of the deceased) and functional impairment. Three factors-Loss, Emotional Numbing, and Emotional Reactivity-emerged in the best-fitting ESEM model, χ2 (92, N = 1,763) = 273.70, p < .001, CFI = .97, TLI = .96, RMSEA = .048, SRMR = .020. All factors were significantly associated with bereavement timeframe, βs = -.15--.20, and age of the deceased, βs = -.22--.31. Lower income predicted both Loss and Emotional Numbing; younger age of the bereaved predicted both Loss and Emotional Reactivity; and female gender was a unique predictor of Loss. Functional impairment was associated only with Emotional Numbing, β = .89. The findings highlight the multidimensional structure of PGD. However, the patterns of factor/cross-factor loadings observed in the present study indicate that a "simple" structure was not attainable. Associations between factors and covariates attest to the discriminant validity of the factors, and the association between Emotional Numbing and functional impairment may afford clinicians an opportunity to better understand and target the most disruptive features of grief.

Psychometric properties of the Spanish adaptation of the Mental Health Continuum—Short Form: A bifactor ESEM approach in an adolescent sample

The mental health continuum—short form (MHC-SF) is a measure that has been increasingly used to assess the positive mental health of the general population. Past research has revealed that the exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) technique yielded the best results for exploring the factorial structure of this measure. However, this technique has not been applied to the Spanish adaptation of the MHC-SF in adolescents. The present study aims for an in-depth examination of the structure of this scale in a population of Spanish adolescents (n = 465) by implementing ESEM. Different competing models were tested using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and ESEM. Measurement invariance, internal reliability, and construct validity were also assessed (n = 382). The findings favored the bifactor ESEM model over the commonly used three-factor structure and the bifactor CFA. The general positive mental health factor was reliable and supported convergent and discriminant validity. The findings confirm that the MHC-SF in a Spanish adolescent sample is best represented by combining the bifactor structure with a general positive mental health factor and ESEM. This study considers the implications derived from implementing this model.

Assessment of an Epidemic Urgency: Psychometric Evidence for the UCLA Loneliness Scale.

In modern industrialized countries, loneliness has been declared an epidemic. The present paper aimed to replicate previous findings about the dimensionality of the UCLA Loneliness Scale-3 version (LS-3) in a sample of Italian adults using Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM). In Study 1, 1676 participants (Mage= 31.15; SD = 11.89) completed the LS-3. The three-factor ESEM model was performed to replicate the previous Italian version, and a Confirmatory Factor Analysis compared the three- and ten-item short versions. In Studies 2, 3, and 4, we administered measures of anxiety, depression, stress, internet addiction, self-esteem, and social interaction anxiety to 3513 participants (Mage= 30.81; SD = 11.77) to assess the convergent and discriminant validity of LS-3. The ESEM 3-factor model was replicated using a Target rotation (X2 = 847.597; df = 133; CFI = 0.942; TLI = 0.917; RMSEA = 0.062), whereas the already-known LS-3 short version raised psychometric concerns. Positive relationships with anxiety, depression, stress, internet addiction, and social interaction anxiety, as well as negative association with self-esteem were found. In conclusion, our findings support the use of the LS-3 in the Italian sample and discourage the administration of the current short forms. The implications for research and clinical practice have been discussed.

Revisiting after-class boredom via exploratory structural equation modeling

Abstract Boredom has recently become the subject of inquiry in L2 studies, which has resulted, among others, in the development and validation of several boredom-measuring scales, mostly through exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). However, such analytical procedures are not free from limitations and exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) can be applied to overcome them. CFA has also been used to validate the Boredom in Learning English Outside of School Questionnaire (BLEOS), an instrument which taps into recently conceptualized after-class boredom, revealing the extent to which students are likely to feel bored when they attempt to practice the target language outside the classroom as well as factors underpinning this negative emotion in such contexts. The present study sought to revisit the BLEOS scale to determine (1) whether the factor structure of the BLEOS is supported by ESEM and bifactor ESEM, (2) how stable the results are across gender, and (3) the criterion-related validity of the BLEOS scale. In doing so, the CFA and ESEM models (i.e., standard and bifactor CFA as well as standard and bifactor ESEM models) were compared to identify which model(s) would exhibit better fit indices for the measure in question. A total of 433 students majoring in English, 120 males and 313 females, participated in this study. It was revealed that while the CFA model provided an inflated factor correlation and unacceptable model fit to the data, ESEM (especially bifactor ESEM) indicated a realistic representation of the data with a good fit. The bi-factor ESEM model of the BLEOS turned out to be stable across gender. Finally, the structural bifactor ESEM model of BLEOS proved to explain learning outcomes modestly.

Orthorexic eating behaviors are not all pathological: a French validation of the Teruel Orthorexia Scale (TOS)

As no French validated measurement tool distinguishing healthy orthorexia (HeOr) from orthorexia nervosa (OrNe) currently exists, this study aimed at examining psychometric properties of the French version of the Teruel Orthorexia Scale (TOS). A sample of 799 participants (Mean [SD] age: 28.5 [12.1] years-old) completed the French versions of the TOS, the Düsseldorfer Orthorexia Skala, the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire, and the Obsessive–Compulsive Inventory-Revised. Confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) were used. Although the bidimensional model, with OrNe and HeOr, of the original 17-item version showed an adequate fit, we suggest excluding items 9 and 15. The bidimensional model for the shortened version provided a satisfactory fit (ESEM model: CFI = .963, TLI = .949, RMSEA = .068). The mean loading was .65 for HeOr and .70 for OrNe. The internal consistency of both dimensions was adequate (αHeOr = .83 and αOrNe = .81). Partial correlations showed that eating disorders and obsessive–compulsive symptomatology measures were positively related to OrNe and unrelated or negatively related to HeOr. The scores from the 15-item French version of the TOS in the current sample appears to present an adequate internal consistency, pattern of associations in line with what was theoretically expected, and promising for differentiating both types of orthorexia in a French population. We discuss why both dimensions of orthorexia should be considered in this area of research.

Adaptation of a Self-Regulated Practice Behavior Scale for Chinese Music Majors

In this study, we evaluated the validity and reliability of a Chinese adaptation of the Self-Regulated Practice Behavior (SRPB) scale developed by Miksza. Tasks included supplementing, altering, and translating items to create a viable adaptation for Chinese music majors and evaluating the construct validity and reliability of the Chinese-adapted Self-Regulated Practice Behavior (C-SRPB) scale. Confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) were used to analyze responses provided by Chinese music majors ( N = 880) from various music conservatories and universities. Results indicated that an adjusted six-factor ESEM model was the best fit to the data. Internal consistency reliability coefficients for the subscales ranged from good to excellent (αs = .77–.86). Significant correlations between six subscales of C-SRPB and practice habits (i.e., daily duration, self-rated efficiency, and percentage of time spent on informal practice) provided criterion validity evidence. Overall, the findings suggested that the C-SRPB is a valid and reliable tool for measuring the self-regulated music practice of music majors in China. The results also suggest that music majors’ understanding of self-regulated practice vary according to individualistic and collectivist culture contexts.

Psychometric Properties of the Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF): A Study With Individuals With Schizophrenia Living in the Community.

The Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF) is widely used to measure positive mental health. This study is the first to examine the psychometric properties of the MHC-SF in persons with schizophrenia living in the community. Two hundred thirty-one individuals with schizophrenia living in the community in South Korea filled out the MHC-SF. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), bifactor CFA, exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), and bifactor ESEM were undertaken to examine the factor structure of the MHC-SF. Results showed that a three-factor bifactor ESEM model yielded better fit than the other alternative models. Indices of internal consistency reliability were acceptable. The results suggest that bifactor ESEM is an appropriate analysis for examining the factor structure of the MHC-SF in individuals with schizophrenia. The findings support the use of the overall MHC-SF scale rather than the use of the subscales in people with schizophrenia.

Revisiting boredom in practical English language classes via exploratory structural equation modeling

Recently research on boredom has gained momentum in the field of applied linguistics. Both exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) have been used to validate the Boredom in Practical English Classes – Revised scale (BPELC-R). Yet, these techniques are not free from limitations. In order to address these limitations, exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) is strongly recommended. Comparing CFA and ESEM models (i.e., standard and bifactor CFA and standard ESEM and bifactor ESEM), the current study aimed to revisit the construct validity of BPELC-R. A total number of 549 English major students (161 females and 388 males) participated in the present investigation. On the whole, the findings demonstrated that CFA failed to provide acceptable fit indices and discriminant validity. However, ESEM (especially bifactor ESEM) offered a better assessment and representation of the construct validity of the BPELC-R scale. Limitations and implications of the study are also provided.