Exploitation Of Space Resources Research Articles

A Survey on Maximum Ratio Combination: Applications, Evaluation and Future Directions

With the rapid development of wireless communications, the occupation of time and frequency resources becomes more crowded. The exploitation of space resources is necessary and the diversity combining techniques have substantial applications. Diversity combining achieves great diversity gains and improves the ability to combat multipath fading, among which the maximum ratio combining (MRC) performs as the optimal linear combining approach. However, MRC suffers from detrimental factors such as channel fading and no Gaussian noise in practical scenarios. In this paper, we focus on a comprehensive investigation of MRC. Starting from the MRC principle and system model, we summarize typical scenarios and analyze the channel fading statistics. For the influential factors, we further review related literature on channel correlation, cochannel interference (CCI) and impulsive noise. Major performance criteria and performance bounds are derived and compared. MRC confronts new developing challenges and the major development directions are reviewed. The paper finally discusses recent works and open problems for MRC applications and development. Emerging techniques such as artificial intelligence provide novel solutions for MRC performance improvements. The paper aims to present a summarized insight to assist readers in clarifying the analyzed methodology of MRC, so as to motivate new technology integration and extensive applications of advanced communication systems.

The Impact of Epistemic Communities on the Development of Future International Legal Regulation of Lunar Activities

Every human culture has reflected the Moon’s influence in its cosmology, spirituality, science, creative and social life. For these reasons, the exploration and use of the Moon should be done thoughtfully and carefully, and possible resource extraction should not harm the Earth's only satellite and its environment as a whole. The adoption by some States of national legislation affecting the commercial exploitation of space resources, as well as the resumption of lunar programs by several leading spacefaring nations at a time, prompt the need for legal regulation in this area. However, to develop a detailed international legal regime for lunar exploration, the efforts of the States parties to the UN COPUOS alone are not sufficient since in practice other actors in international relations, including the so-called epistemic communities representing various types of non-governmental organizations, are also active participants in space activities. Such communities offer their own vision of the international legal regulation of relations arising in the framework of the exploration and use of the Moon basing on the norms of international space law and involving active participation of non-governmental legal entities, considering the interests of present and future generations, as well as of emerging space nations. The study presents a comprehensive analysis of the influence of epistemic communities on the development of the future international legal regime for lunar exploration. The authors consistently review the activities of non-governmental organizations within the UN COPUOS since its formation. Special attention is paid to the contribution of such communities to the progressive development of international space law and its codification, including the legal nature of the documents developed by such communities. The study concludes with a comprehensive international legal assessment of the activities of the epistemic communities.

Extra‐terrestrial resources: A potential solution for securing the supply of rare metals for the coming decades?

The forthcoming energy transition driven by the need to reduce CO2 emissions requires large amounts of critical elements to construct renewable energy devices such as car batteries, wind turbines and solar panels. For many elements such as Li, Co, REEs and Ti, the production sources are located in countries with poor social and environmental standards, prone to political destabilization such as military conflicts, or vulnerable to strained relationships with consumer countries. Lately, the volatile geopolitical context has further demonstrated the high dependency of Europe and other developed countries in terms of raw material supply. In addition, there is a debate about the Earth's potential to sustain the transition toward a green society by using conventional resources from mining of terrestrial rocks. As nature conservation and climate mitigation are now priorities for the majority of governments, and since conventional mining on Earth suffers from a growing social resistance, humankind may need to look toward new frontier resources for supplying the mineral needs of the coming decades. Here, we explore the use of extra‐terrestrial resources as a potential source to feed the future supply of critical metals. Extra‐terrestrial mining may be an opportunity for wealth creation and an option for critical metal resource supply when mining on Earth becomes increasingly untenable. We conclude that the potential impacts of extraction and exploitation of space resources, both good and bad, could be societally profound.

Competitive observance by the Russian Federation and the USA of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty

Introduction. Thе Russian Federation and the USA, being parties to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, in their national legal acts refer to this source. Each of these states recognizes that the 1967 Outer Space regime is to be perfected, while having different legal outer space policy. The USA is a leader of the military outer space infrastructure and of creation national outer space legislation and separate international agreements (“The Artemis Accords”), thus imposing its own track to develop the 1967 Treaty.Materials and methods. This research addresses relevant international documents on international space law as well as acts of national legislation pertaining to the topic. Research results. In modern political conditions the quality of a state defense and its economic development is linked to the efficiency of the outer space infrastructure, including communication and reconnaissance satellites. While the U.S. intends to achieve military supremacy in the outer space, the 1967 Treaty seems to be a barrier to such intention although the U.S. provides its own interpretation of the Treaty. Another significant area of competition between Russia and USA in the outer space legal policy is the observance of the natural resources treaty provisions. According to the USA, a state is entitled unilaterally exploit the space resources, and its persons are entitled to commercial use of such resources based on national law. This position of the United States resulted in creation of its national legislation opportunities for natural resources activities in outer space. The Russian Federation continues to defend multilateral approach to the exploitation of space resources and to call upon strictly observance of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. There are also competitive legal positions of the USA and Russia relating to the notion of “common province of mankind” provided by the 1967 Treaty.The main results. In this context, the paper after providing prolegomena to the competitive principle in international law, suggests some theoretical ideas for perfecting of the legal position of the Russian Federation as a response to the modern outer space legal policy of the USA.Discussion and conclusions. In the legal literature on this issue different views are assessed – from a radical rejection of the US model of behavior and continuation of efforts to strengthen the 1967 Treaty regime, to proposals to adopt a new national Russian legislation providing rights of persons to exploit the natural resources of celestial bodies, thus provid-ing incentives for private investors. This track leads to more competition with the USA, observing at the same time the 1967 Treaty as the “corpus juris specialis”.

Strive for equitable use of space minerals resources

The global world has been paying great attention to the issue of space resources. To measure global equity, according to the dominant criteria, this paper selects resources, economic, opportunity, and policy indicators by using the entropy weight method to calculate the information entropy and weight of each indicator, to measure the degree of equity. In the future exploitation of space resources, in terms of financing and returns, this paper uses the global equity model, and to calculate the maximum mining returns, this paper uses linear programming. The results show that the maximum benefit is $20.01 million per ton.

Social work in space: Expanding policy and practice into the cosmos

AbstractAs private interests expand in space, what is the significance, if any, to social work? To answer this question, I present several implications of contemporary human activities in space and assess their relevance to environmental and ecological justice. Specifically, I evaluate the connection between the profession and the commercialization and exploitation of space resources, human‐generated cosmic “trash,” and terrestrial challenges. I conclude that social work must “look to the stars” and help humanity navigate competing interests in a delicate space future. Nearly a quarter century ago, ecological consequences of human activity prompted social work to incorporate the natural environment into practice. In preparation for the realization of modern extraterrestrial objectives, I propose that social work expand its conceptualization of the natural environment from ecosphere to cosmos. In this uncharted context, I propose future directions and offer questions to which leaders, scholars, and practitioners might begin seeking answers.

Commercial Lunar Ice Mining: Is There a Role for Royalties?

This paper explores the impacts of a potential royalty mechanism by considering the effects of different royalty and tax rates on the economics of a hypothetical commercial lunar ice mining project. The study also examines the conceivable benefits that could be generated from a royalty regime from a global perspective and considers the possible impacts of royalties on operational decision making in a commercial lunar ice mining context. There has been substantial debate since the signing of the Outer Space Treaty in 1967 regarding how to ensure the international community benefits from the commercial exploitation of space resources, should these activities eventuate. This includes the recent initiative by the Legal Subcommittee of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space to establish a Working Group to explore potential models for a legal framework to govern space resource activities. No formal proposal to include a royalty mechanism has yet been made; however, it is apparent that part of the mandate of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space Legal Subcommittee could be to explore the issue of benefit sharing, and it is possible that a royalty mechanism or something similar could ultimately be proposed. After considering the impact of royalties on a hypothetical lunar ice mining project, this paper finds that royalties, in particular ad valorem royalties, could have a meaningful impact on the economics and operational parameters of a commercial lunar ice mining project, in turn potentially impacting the ability to raise the funding required to develop such projects. The study also finds that under plausible scenarios, the benefits generated on a per capita basis would be negligible, even assuming significant industry growth rates over 50 years. The study, therefore, concludes that the rationale for imposing a royalty mechanism on space resource activities for the purposes of benefit sharing through direct monetary distribution to recipients would need to be carefully examined should such a royalty mechanism ever be proposed.

The helium bubble: Prospects for 3He-fuelled nuclear fusion

The helium bubble: Prospects for 3He-fuelled nuclear fusion

The Dilemma Between the Freedom to Use and the Proscription against Appropriating Outer Space and Celestial Bodies

Abstract Although a large-scale extraction of resources from outer space does not seem feasible yet, associated legal debates are already underway. Indeed, anticipating a race for space resources, some States are taking the lead in enacting legislation regulating future exploitation by their subjects. Sales of “extraterrestrial real estate” by private entities have been taking place for decades. This article addresses the topic of exploitation of space resources from an international law perspective—regardless of whether it will be firmly on the agenda tomorrow or in thirty years’ time. The crucial issue is to establish if, and eventually how, it is possible to conciliate the two principles at stake here: freedom to use outer space and celestial bodies, which arguably includes exploitation, and the impermissibility of their appropriation. It will be pointed out that, rather than proposing a comprehensive and rigid mechanism, the Outer Space Treaty and the Moon Agreement could represent a starting point, a proactive framework for achieving consensus among States and for seeking multilateral solutions for the exploitation of space resources.

International space law of the era of the beginning of the business colonization of space

Traditional approach to the activity in outer space as exclusive domain of few big space faring states through special governmental agencies as a sort of natural monopolies is rapidly placing by the prevailing view that such activity could be successfully and efficiently performed by private entities and fair competition between such players shall be allowed and is even desirable. Increasing participation of private capital in exploration of the resources of outer space is a persuasive confirmation of the emerging large-scale, self-sufficient economy of the New Space attractive for potential investors. Such economy requires sufficient level of legal certainty in a form of effective legal rules adequately reflecting contemporary reality and capable to guarantee the rights of commercial players in exploration of space resources including ownership rights on space resources obtained. Arguably, such reshaping of international space law will take place outside the UN and would not be based on the concept of space as a common heritage of mankind. Main drivers of this reshaping will be unilateral national laws like the U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act or Luxembourg Space, bilateral agreements or international treaties with small number of participants (like the International Space Station Agreement or the Artemis Accords). Such national practice and international treaties claiming that they are adopted in implementation and in full conformity with the Outer Space Treaty will be viewed as subsequent practice and subsequent agreements clarifying, amending and even modifying rather vague provisions of the Outer Space Treaty. The values of the Outer Space Treaty will increase due to a lack of strict rules regulating or prohibiting commercial exploitation of space resources. It will allow to perform evolutionary reform of international space law using new avenues of the treaty creating new rules which will implement and improve provisions of the Outer Space Treaty.

Fundamental Principles of Space Resources Exploitation: A Recent Development of International and Municipal Law

Space law is normally referred to international space law. As national space activities develop, however, national space laws have been legislated in many countries for the development of space resources. These are used to present conflicting cases between national and international space law (corpus juris spatialis internationalis) on the interpretation of space resource exploitation. This study is devoted to bridging the gap between these two legal systems. In this paper, the author will critically review the fundamental principles of space resource exploitation under international law and suggest a direction for setting up national space laws for future space resources. This paper is composed of seven parts, including a short Introduction and Conclusion. Part two will discuss acts pertaining to asteroid resources. Part three will deal with res extra commercium. Part four will analyze the non-appropriation principle. Part five will look into the common heritage of mankind. Part six will investigate res nullius humanitatus.

Can space mining benefit all of humanity?: The resource fund and citizen's dividend model of Alaska, the ‘last frontier’

Economically profitable resource exploitation in space is becoming increasingly feasible as more actors - national, public and private-are engaging in space exploration. The Outer Space Treaty (OST), which serves as the basis for the current corpus juris spatialis, declares that no government can claim sovereignty over celestial bodies or outer space itself. Because this is generally interpreted as denying private ownership, the OST is sometimes claimed to be an obstacle to commercial venture, particularly resource exploitation. Such claims ignore a wealth of terrestrial models which promote profitable commercial resource exploitation independent of fee-simple ownership. To achieve an approach to space exploration and exploitation which balances national, international, and commercial interests and a need to prevent conflict and militarization of outer space, terrestrial approaches to managing resource exploitation should be carefully examined for frameworks and mechanisms with potential to serve as models in further elaborating an international regime for space resource exploitation. A previously overlooked terrestrial example, the Alaska Permanent Fund, and its unique citizen's dividend, is explored as one possible model for such a balanced approach that could encourage profit-driven exploration and exploitation of extra-terrestrial resources, reduce the risk of conflict between actors in outer space and simultaneously accrue tangible benefits to all of humanity.

Book Review: Exclusive Use in an Inclusive Environment: The Meaning of the Non-Appropriation Principle for Space Resource Exploitation, by Philip De Man. (Series: Space Regulations Library. vol

Book Review: <i>Exclusive Use in an Inclusive Environment: The Meaning of the Non-Appropriation Principle for Space Resource Exploitation,</i> by Philip De Man. (Series: Space Regulations Library. vol

LEGALITY OF UNILATERAL EXPLOITATION OF SPACE RESOURCES UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW

AbstractIn recent years, there has been a surge of private investment in space resources and the enactment of domestic legislation aimed at protecting property rights over the resources to be extracted. This article argues that the unilateral exploitation of space resources is not prohibited by the principle of non-appropriation and is consistent with the freedom of use for common benefit and interests, with the caveat that it does not exclude others from exploitation or exacerbate inequality among States. It also argues that a laissez-faire approach would be detrimental to the orderly, sustainable and safe exploitation and use of space resources and calls for the establishment of an international regulatory regime consisting of rules concerning international coordination, benefits sharing and environmental protection.

CSR in Space: Corporate Social Responsibility Principles for the Space Industries

Laws already exist which govern space, as do corporate social responsibility (CSR) guidelines for companies operating on Earth and a growing movement pushing for legal clarity inter alia concerning property rights in space. Until now, no effort has been made to analyse the mutual implications of these developments-and consequently to produce CSR guidelines based on them, for space. Terrestrial CSR has evolved to fill gaps in national legal and policy frameworks by formulating principles and guidance, sometimes based on soft law instruments. This function of remedying legal uncertainties makes CSR an ideal tool and approach for defining and addressing responsible corporate behaviour in space. CSR Guidelines for Space ought to help public and private actors alike achieve the sustainable commercial exploitation of space resources. CSR should be taken seriously by space industries because: 1) It can help to guide companies to act in a socially responsible way in areas where legal standards are still developing, 2) It can help ensure a continued “social license to operate” with reference to terrestrial stakeholders, 3) It can help to build renewed support for public and private investment in space science and space industries.I argue that CSR Guidelines for Space should address the following 10 issues:Monitoring, Safety, Transparency, Accountability, Conservation, Health, Psychological Health, Environment, Space junk and Respect to Property.

On the Moral Permissibility of Terraforming

Terraforming is a process of planetary engineering by which the extant environment of a planet is manipulated so as to produce an Earth-like ecosystem. This paper explores the ethical questions about the exploration of space and the exploitation of space resources that arise in the consideration of terraforming. I argue that space advocacy (including the pursuit of terraforming) and environmentalism are mutually beneficial endeavors. I show that the moral status of terraforming a planet, at least under traditional anthropocentric and non-anthropocentric positions, is sensitive to whether life exists on the candidate planet. I also examine several attempts—due to Holmes Rolston, Keekok Lee, Alan Marshall, and Robert Sparrow—to show that terraforming a planet would be impermissible even if the planet was not home to life. I argue that no attempt provides compelling reasons for the supposition that terraforming is morally impermissible.

Synergistic approach of asteroid exploitation and planetary protection

The asteroid and cometary impact hazard has long been recognised as an important issue requiring risk assessment and contingency planning. At the same time asteroids have also been acknowledged as possible sources of raw materials for future large-scale space engineering ventures. This paper explores possible synergies between these two apparently opposed views; planetary protection and space resource exploitation. In particular, the paper assumes a 5 tonne low-thrust spacecraft as a baseline for asteroid deflection and capture (or resource transport) missions. The system is assumed to land on the asteroid and provide a continuous thrust able to modify the orbit of the asteroid according to the mission objective. The paper analyses the capability of such a near-term system to provide both planetary protection and asteroid resources to Earth. Results show that a 5 tonne spacecraft could provide a high level of protection for modest impact hazards: airburst and local damage events (caused by 15–170 m diameter objects). At the same time, the same spacecraft could also be used to transport to bound Earth orbits significant quantities of material through judicious use of orbital dynamics and passively safe aero-capture manoeuvres or low energy ballistic capture. As will be shown, a 5 tonne low-thrust spacecraft could potentially transport between 12 and 350 times its own mass of asteroid resources by means of ballistic capture or aero-capture trajectories that pose very low dynamical pressures on the object.

Development of the Natural Resources of the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies: Economic and Legal Aspects

The path of gradual commercialization of current space applications, such as launch services, satellite communication services, direct broadcasting services, satellite remote sensing and navigation services, and satellite weather monitoring services, will most likely be followed by future activities of use of space resources. Ventures, like mining the natural resources of the Moon and asteroids, are likely to become technologically feasible in the near future. The question is what would be the most appropriate approach to address the future needs of exploitation of space resources: should it remain the exclusive province of state governments; should the private sector take over such space activities; or should a public-private partnership type of venture be encouraged? As state governments are becoming constrained by budget deficits, an increased reliance on private sector involvement in space activities involving the extraction and use of space resources is to be expected. When deciding whether to invest in commercial ventures of resource use exploitation, any potential private investor will be faced with the issues of economic costs, risks, and perceived regulatory barriers. This study argues that the perceived regulatory barriers, i.e., the licensing requirement, the “common heritage of mankind” principle of international space law, and protection of intellectual property rights, are not obstacles to economic development. Governments should provide both policy and regulatory incentives for private sector participation in the area of space natural resource use by funding basic research and development and by sponsoring liability insurance for private ventures among other incentives.

Vacuum Coater

Economically profitable resource exploitation in space is becoming increasingly feasible as more actors - national, public and private-are engaging in space exploration. The Outer Space Treaty (OST), which serves as the basis for the current corpus juris spatialis, declares that no government can claim sovereignty over celestial bodies or outer space itself. Because this is generally interpreted as denying private ownership, the OST is sometimes claimed to be an obstacle to commercial venture, particularly resource exploitation. Such claims ignore a wealth of terrestrial models which promote profitable commercial resource exploitation independent of fee-simple ownership. To achieve an approach to space exploration and exploitation which balances national, international, and commercial interests and a need to prevent conflict and militarization of outer space, terrestrial approaches to managing resource exploitation should be carefully examined for frameworks and mechanisms with potential to serve as models in further elaborating an international regime for space resource exploitation. A previously overlooked terrestrial example, the Alaska Permanent Fund, and its unique citizen's dividend, is explored as one possible model for such a balanced approach that could encourage profit-driven exploration and exploitation of extra-terrestrial resources, reduce the risk of conflict between actors in outer space and simultaneously accrue tangible benefits to all of humanity.