Explicit Cues Research Articles

Patient cues and symptoms of psychosocial distress: what predicts assessment and treatment of distress by oncology clinicians?

Psychosocial concerns arise after a cancer diagnosis and during treatment requiring oncology clinicians to initiate discussions to identify distress. This study examined patient-clinician communication about psychosocial concerns and predictors of assessment and treatment/referral for distress. Secondary analysis of existing dataset coded to explore patient-clinician communication during ambulatory visits in two comprehensive cancer centers was carried out. Sample included adult patients with various cancers and stages. Dataset included audio-recordings and symptom/QOL reports 4-6 weeks after starting treatment from all distressed patients (n = 66) in parent study and random sample of nondistressed patients (n = 23). Distressed patients had moderate-to-severe depression (Patient Health Questionnaire-9 scores ≥10) and/or poor emotional functioning (European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Questionnaire emotional function scores <50). Audio-recordings were coded to describe patient-clinician communication about psychosocial concerns using the coding scheme from the parent study plus Medical Interview Aural Rating System. The remaining patients gave 222 cues of psychosocial concerns: 183 from 46 distressed patients and 39 from nine nondistressed patients. Distressed patients were younger, were female, had higher symptom burden, and/or gave more cues. Significantly, more distressed patients had at least one cue/visit. Clinicians initiated 62% of discussions overall with no statistical difference between distressed and nondistressed groups. More explicit cues and more than four cues predicted treatment/referral for distress. Distressed patients were younger, were female, had higher symptom burden, and/or gave more verbal cues. Clinicians responded to explicit and more frequent cues by providing treatment and/or referrals for distress. Further exploration is needed regarding clinician factors related to assessment of psychosocial concerns.

Age Differences in Memory-Based Task Switching With and Without Cues

The study investigated the neuronal mechanisms of age-related changes in mixing costs during memory-based task switching with two levels of working memory (WM) load. Forty-eight healthy younger and 45 healthy older participants performed a memory based (high WM load) and a memory plus cue based (low WM load) switching task while event-related brain potentials (ERPs) were registered. Older adults revealed larger mixing costs in both reaction time (RT) and accuracy at higher WM loads than younger adults. The presence of explicit cues substantially reduced age differences in mixing costs for accuracy but not for RT. Similarly, no age differences regarding local switch costs were found at lower WM load. Surprisingly, larger RT local costs in younger adults than in older adults were found in the memory-based block. The CNV was reduced under high WM load and positively correlated with accuracy mixing costs in older adults. The target-locked occipital N1 and fronto-central P2 were larger in older adults relative to younger adults irrespective of WM load. The P2 latency reflected the pattern of switch costs observed in behavioral data. Moreover, P2 latency positively correlated with RT mixing costs in older adults. Elderly also showed a delayed N2 and a delayed and reduced P3b. The results suggest that age-related differences in mixing costs may be partially due to a less efficient task preparation and task set maintenance (CNV) in elderly. However, elderly attempted to compensate for these deficits by permanent activation of mechanisms relating to stimulus encoding (N1) and task-set retrieval (P2). Finally, the delayed fronto-central N2 as well as the delayed and reduced parietal P3b strongly suggest delays of response selection and working memory updating in elderly due to an increase in selection threshold or in response selection variability constituting the performance decline.

Enhanced attentional bias towards sexually explicit cues in individuals with and without compulsive sexual behaviours.

Compulsive sexual behaviour (CSB) is relatively common and has been associated with significant distress and psychosocial impairments. CSB has been conceptualized as either an impulse control disorder or a non-substance ‘behavioural’ addiction. Substance use disorders are commonly associated with attentional biases to drug cues which are believed to reflect processes of incentive salience. Here we assess male CSB subjects compared to age-matched male healthy controls using a dot probe task to assess attentional bias to sexually explicit cues. We show that compared to healthy volunteers, CSB subjects have enhanced attentional bias to explicit cues but not neutral cues particularly for early stimuli latency. Our findings suggest enhanced attentional bias to explicit cues possibly related to an early orienting attentional response. This finding dovetails with our recent observation that sexually explicit videos were associated with greater activity in a neural network similar to that observed in drug-cue-reactivity studies. Greater desire or wanting rather than liking was further associated with activity in this neural network. These studies together provide support for an incentive motivation theory of addiction underlying the aberrant response towards sexual cues in CSB.

Neural correlates of sexual cue reactivity in individuals with and without compulsive sexual behaviours.

Although compulsive sexual behaviour (CSB) has been conceptualized as a “behavioural” addiction and common or overlapping neural circuits may govern the processing of natural and drug rewards, little is known regarding the responses to sexually explicit materials in individuals with and without CSB. Here, the processing of cues of varying sexual content was assessed in individuals with and without CSB, focusing on neural regions identified in prior studies of drug-cue reactivity. 19 CSB subjects and 19 healthy volunteers were assessed using functional MRI comparing sexually explicit videos with non-sexual exciting videos. Ratings of sexual desire and liking were obtained. Relative to healthy volunteers, CSB subjects had greater desire but similar liking scores in response to the sexually explicit videos. Exposure to sexually explicit cues in CSB compared to non-CSB subjects was associated with activation of the dorsal anterior cingulate, ventral striatum and amygdala. Functional connectivity of the dorsal anterior cingulate-ventral striatum-amygdala network was associated with subjective sexual desire (but not liking) to a greater degree in CSB relative to non-CSB subjects. The dissociation between desire or wanting and liking is consistent with theories of incentive motivation underlying CSB as in drug addictions. Neural differences in the processing of sexual-cue reactivity were identified in CSB subjects in regions previously implicated in drug-cue reactivity studies. The greater engagement of corticostriatal limbic circuitry in CSB following exposure to sexual cues suggests neural mechanisms underlying CSB and potential biological targets for interventions.

Effect of Distinctive Frames on Memory for Pictures

Prior research has found that when attention was brought to the frame of a picture using a verbal cue, memory for frames increased while memory for pictures decreased. This study attempted to test whether the same effect would occur without an explicit verbal cue. Specifically, we compared primary and secondary distinctiveness in frame processing in an attempt to integrate the frame without a verbal cue. Primary distinctiveness was manipulated through color, and secondary distinctiveness was manipulated through the shape of the frame. Participants were shown a series of framed pictures and then given a recognition test for the pictures without the frames. The results replicated the diminished memory for pictures only when secondary distinctiveness was used. Implications of these findings on frame selection are discussed.

People use the memory for past-test heuristic as an explicit cue for judgments of learning.

When people estimate their memory for to-be-learned material over multiple study-test trials, they tend to base their judgments of learning (JOLs) on their test performance for those materials on the previous trial. Their use of this information-known as the memory for past-test (MPT) heuristic-is believed to be responsible for improvements in the relative accuracy (resolution) of people's JOLs across learning trials. Although participants seem to use past-test information as a major basis for their JOLs, little is known about how learners translate this information into a judgment of learning. Toward this end, in two experiments, we examined whether participants factored past-test performance into their JOLs in either an explicit, theory-based way or an implicit way. To do so, we had one group of participants (learners) study paired associates, make JOLs, and take a test on two study-test trials. Other participants (observers) viewed learners' protocols and made JOLs for the learners. Presumably, observers could only use theory-based information to make JOLs for the learners, which allowed us to estimate the contribution of explicit and implicit information to learners' JOLs. Our analyses suggest that all participants factored simple past-test performance into their JOLs in an explicit, theory-based way but that this information made limited contributions to improvements in relative accuracy across trials. In contrast, learners also used other privileged, implicit information about their learning to inform their judgments (that observers had no access to) that allowed them to achieve further improvements in relative accuracy across trials.

Using Implicit Instructional Cues to Influence False Memory Induction.

Previous research has shown that explicit cues specific to the encoding process (endogenous) or characteristic of the stimuli themselves (exogenous) can be used to direct a reader's attentional resources towards either relational or item-specific information. By directing attention to relational information (and therefore away from item-specific information) the rate of false memory induction can be increased. The purpose of the current study was to investigate if a similar effect would be found by manipulating implicitly endogenous cues. An instructional manipulation was used to influence the perceptual action participants performed on word stimuli during the encoding of DRM list words. Results demonstrated that the instructional conditions that encouraged faster processing also led to an increased rate of false memory induction for semantically related words, supporting the hypothesis that attention was directed towards relational information. This finding supports the impoverished relational processing account of false memory induction. This supports the idea that implicitly endogenous cues, exogenous cues (like font) or explicitly endogenous cues (like training) can direct attentional resources during encoding.

Touchscreen-paradigm for mice reveals cross-species evidence for an antagonistic relationship of cognitive flexibility and stability.

The abilities to either flexibly adjust behavior according to changing demands (cognitive flexibility) or to maintain it in the face of potential distractors (cognitive stability) are critical for adaptive behavior in many situations. Recently, a novel human paradigm has found individual differences of cognitive flexibility and stability to be related to common prefrontal networks. The aims of the present study were, first, to translate this paradigm from humans to mice and, second, to test conceptual predictions of a computational model of prefrontal working memory mechanisms, the Dual State Theory, which assumes an antagonistic relation between cognitive flexibility and stability. Mice were trained in a touchscreen-paradigm to discriminate visual cues. The task involved “ongoing” and cued “switch” trials. In addition distractor cues were interspersed to test the ability to resist distraction, and an ambiguous condition assessed the spontaneous switching between two possible responses without explicit cues. While response times did not differ substantially between conditions, error rates (ER) increased from the “ongoing” baseline condition to the most complex condition, where subjects were required to switch between two responses in the presence of a distracting cue. Importantly, subjects switching more often spontaneously were found to be more distractible by task irrelevant cues, but also more flexible in situations, where switching was required. These results support a dichotomy of cognitive flexibility and stability as predicted by the Dual State Theory. Furthermore, they replicate critical aspects of the human paradigm, which indicates the translational potential of the testing procedure and supports the use of touchscreen procedures in preclinical animal research.

The Prevalence, Intensity, and Assessment of Craving for MDMA/Ecstasy in Recreational Users

This study evaluated the prevalence, intensity, and correlates of craving for MDMA/ecstasy among recreational users employing a new multi-item, self-report questionnaire reflecting experiences of desire, intention to use, and anticipated loss of control. Using a web-based data collection procedure, we recruited MDMA/ecstasy users (n = 240) to rate their agreement with eight craving statements immediately before and immediately following 90 seconds of exposure to either ecstasy-related or control stimuli. Participants then completed questionnaires to measure ecstasy refusal self-efficacy, passionate engagement in ecstasy use, substance use history, and demographic information. Fifty percent of participants indicated some level of agreement with at least two (out of eight) statements indicative of craving and 30% agreed at some level with six or more such statements. The questionnaire used to assess craving was internally consistent, unidimensional, and had excellent one-week test-retest reliability. Craving scores varied as a function of both cue exposure and frequency of ecstasy use, and were significantly associated with ecstasy-related attitudes. Recreational users of MDMA/ecstasy endorse some experiences indicative of craving for this drug, even though only a minority report intense craving following explicit cue exposure.

Two rooms, two representations? Episodic‐like memory in toddlers and preschoolers

Episodic memory involves binding together what-where-when associations. In three experiments, we tested the development of memory for such contextual associations in a naturalistic setting. Children searched for toys in two rooms with two different experimenters; each room contained two identical sets of four containers, but arranged differently. A distinct toy was hidden in a distinct container in each room. In Experiment 1, which involved children between 15 and 26 months who were prompted with a very explicit cue (a part of the hidden toy), we found a marked shift in performance with age: while 15- to 20-month-olds concentrated their searches on the two containers that sometimes contained toys, they did not distinguish between them according to context, but 21-26-month-olds did. However, surprisingly, without toy cues, even the youngest children showed a fragile ability to disambiguate the two containers by room context. In Experiment 2, we tested 34- to 40-month-olds and 64- to 72-month-olds without toy cues. The 5-year-olds were nearly perfect, and the 3-year-olds showed a significant preference for the correct container given only the context. In Experiment 3, we filled in the age range, and also investigated the effects of the use of labels (i.e. names of experimenters and rooms) and of familiarization time, in groups of 34- to 40-month-olds, 42- to 48-month-olds, and 50- to 56-month-olds. Neither labels nor familiarization time had an effect. Across experiments, there was regular age-related improvement in context-based memory. Overall, the results suggest that children's episodic memory may undergo an early qualitative change, yet to be precisely characterized, and that continuing increments in the use of contextual cues occur throughout the preschool period. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DkwEFw0UEz4&list=PLwxXcOKHPC0llAPVcJyW4EtzlA934A2Rz&index=1.

A Brunswik lens model of consumer health judgments of packaged foods

ABSTRACTConsumer health judgments of packaged food were compared with an objective healthfulness criterion using a Brunswik lens model. Consumer judgments were obtained from a representative consumer sample (N = 1329) who evaluated the healthfulness of 198 packaged food products. The objective healthfulness criterion was calculated for each product according to its specific nutrition values using a validated nutrition profile. The lens model included explicit cues such as nutrition values, nutrition and health claims, food category, and brand and implicit cues such a packaging design and category representativeness. The study revealed that the objective healthfulness criterion is highly predictable on the basis of cues such as the food category, brand, carbohydrate content, and whether the food is a typical “light” product. However, consumer judgments of food healthfulness are based almost entirely on the food category and to a lesser extent on the brand and consumer familiarity with the product. The results are in conflict with consumers' self‐reported use of nutrition information but are in accordance with findings from studies using implicit methods. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Spectro-temporal Unfolding of Temporal Orienting of Attention

All behaviors unfold over time, therefore, our ability to perceive and adapt our behavior according to the temporal constraints of our environment is likely a fundamental requirement for successful behavior (Nobre et al., 2007). Temporal preparation has been defined as our ability to anticipate and prepare an optimal response to forthcoming events in our environment (Nobre et al., 2007). Temporal preparation requires integration of different types of temporal information. On the one hand, information can be provided by temporal predictions, i.e. temporal orienting of attention. On the other hand, information can be afforded by the duration of the previous temporal events, namely the sequential effects (e.g., Capizzi et al., 2012). In this project we are focusing in the time-frequency analysis during the delay period (i.e., foreperiod) from the cue onset until the target onset at the short interval. We followed the results of Capizzi et al.’s (2013) study which showed that the CNV component was increased in the delay period when the previous foreperiod was short as compared to long (Cappizi et al., 2013).Recent studies are concerned with the question of how oscillatory brain activity can provide a mechanism for regulating our temporal behavior (Cravo et al., 2011; Praamstra & Pope, 2007; Rohenkohl & Nobre, 2011). Oscillatory brain activity may be one of the mechanisms underlying the operation of different brain areas during cognitive functions (Buzsaki, 2006). When brain activity is recorded at the level of neural populations, the activity assumes a rhythmic temporal structure. Spectral analysis or time-frequency analysis is the study of brain rhythms. Using time-frequency analysis one can characterize the modulation of certain brain rhythms as those unfold in time. Additionally, different brain regions can engage in synchronized brain activity in certain frequency bands. Such synchronization may support inter-areal communication, which is likely fundamental to many of the cognitive functions producing behavior. Studying brain rhythms therefore has the potential of revealing mechanisms underlying cognitive function and behavior (Fries, 2009).Previous studies in the field of temporal preparation (Cravo et al., 2011; Rohenkohl & Nobre, 2011) have investigated oscillatory brain activity and how it is modulated over the time intervals in which target events are expected. Specifically, desynchronization of low frequency power (<30Hz) has been documented following the time course of predictable time intervals. In this project, we were interested in investigating the spectro-temporal profile of both temporal orienting and the sequential effects during the preparatory interval (foreperiod). Time/frequency analyses was focused on epochs locked to the cue onset and compared EEG activity related to early vs. late temporal expectations (temporal orienting) and EEG activity related to previous short vs. previous long foreperiods (sequential effects).With the aforementioned approach we aim to clarify whether or not sequential effects and temporal orienting effects are mediated by the same brain activity. The behavioral data from the previous study of Capizzi et al. (2012) indicated that temporal orienting and sequential effects are different aspects of temporal preparation and that sequential effects are related to automatic rather than to controlled processing unlike the temporal orienting effect. Time frequency analysis was performed in a total of fourteen subjects; cue locked analysis showed that when an early cue is followed by a short interval there is higher power in lower frequencies as compared to the power when a late cue is followed by a short interval. These results signify a difference in the power representation of the temporal preparation for explicit cuing compared when temporal preparation is guided by the presentation of a regular rhythm suggesting the involvement of dissociable mechanisms

Attributes of Subtle Cues for Facilitating Visual Search in Augmented Reality

Goal-oriented visual search is performed when a person intentionally seeks a target in the visual environment. In augmented reality (AR) environments, visual search can be facilitated by augmenting virtual cues in the person's field of view. Traditional use of explicit AR cues can potentially degrade visual search performance due to the creation of distortions in the scene. An alternative to explicit cueing, known as subtle cueing, has been proposed as a clutter-neutral method to enhance visual search in video-see-through AR. However, the effects of subtle cueing are still not well understood, and more research is required to determine the optimal methods of applying subtle cueing in AR. We performed two experiments to investigate the variables of scene clutter, subtle cue opacity, size, and shape on visual search performance. We introduce a novel method of experimentally manipulating the scene clutter variable in a natural scene while controlling for other variables. The findings provide supporting evidence for the subtlety of the cue, and show that the clutter conditions of the scene can be used both as a global classifier, as well as a local performance measure.

The difficulty of recognizing less obvious forms of group-based discrimination

Research on perceptions of discrimination has focused on group-based differential treatment that is widely accepted as being illegitimate (e.g., based on race or gender). The present research investigates how individuals interpret less obvious forms of group-based exclusion based on age (Study 1) and vision correction status (Study 2). We propose that individuals will not question the legitimacy of such treatment, unless they are provided with explicit cues to do so. Participants who merely encountered exclusion (baseline control) did not differ from those who were directed to consider the legitimate reasons for this treatment, with respect to perceived legitimacy, felt anger, and collective action intentions. In contrast, individuals who were directed to consider the illegitimate reasons for the exclusion perceived it to be less legitimate, felt more anger, and reported higher collective action intentions. Participants’ own status as potential victims or mere observers of the exclusion criterion did not influence their legitimacy perceptions or felt anger. Results suggest that when confronted with forms of group-based exclusion that are not commonly defined as discrimination, people do not perceive an injustice unless explicitly directed to seek it out.

The benefit of offline sleep and wake for novel object recognition

How do we segment and recognize novel objects? When explicit cues from motion and color are available, object boundary detection is relatively easy. However, under conditions of deep camouflage, in which objects share the same image cues as their background, the visual system must reassign new functional roles to existing image statistics in order to group continuities for detection and segmentation of object boundaries. This bootstrapped learning process is stimulus dependent and requires extensive task-specific training. Using a between-subject design, we tested participants on their ability to segment and recognize novel objects after a consolidation period of sleep or wake. We found a specific role for rapid eye movement (REM, n = 43) sleep in context-invariant novel object learning, and that REM sleep as well as a period of active wake (AW, n = 35) increased segmentation of context-specific object learning compared to a period of quiet wake (QW, n = 38; p = .007 and p = .017, respectively). Performance in the non-REM nap group (n = 32) was not different from the other groups. The REM sleep enhancement effect was especially robust for the top performing quartile of subjects, or "super learners" (p = .037). Together, these results suggest that the construction and generalization of novel representations through bootstrapped learning may benefit from REM sleep, and more specific object learning may also benefit from AW. We discuss these results in the context of shared electrophysiological and neurochemical features of AW and REM sleep, which are distinct from QW and non-REM sleep.

Observation enhances third-party punishment only among people who were not hot-tempered

The evolution of punishment toward norm-violators has been discussed for understanding a large-scale human cooperation. Recent studies showed that the presence of cues of surveillance makes people concern about their reputation and increase altruistic behavior. Recent study also suggests that explicit cues of observation affect punitive behavior. We examined whether both explicit (being observed by an experimenter) and implicit cues (drawing of stylized eyes) of observation enhance third-party punishment. The results of the experiments with Japanese participants showed that both type of cues of observation increased third-party punishment only among those who did not feel anger toward an unfair allocator. In contrast, the cues suppressed the punishment when participant felt stronger anger toward an allocator. Moderating effect of emotion is interpreted as a cultural norm of emotional expression. Our study suggests that we humans are endowed with the psychological system inducing third-party punishment in response to cues of being observed while its function may be moderated by cultural factors.

A comparison of general and explicit delay cues to reinforcement for tangible-maintained challenging behaviour

Objectives: This compares effects of explicit delay cue to reinforcement to general delay cue to reinforcement when attempting to decrease tangible-maintained challenging behaviours of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).Methods: Two school-age children with ASD participated in this study. In order to evaluate the effects of a general cue versus an explicit cue on the participants’ tangibly maintained challenging behaviours, a multiple baseline design across settings with an embedded alternating treatments design was used.Results: Results suggested that both types of delay cue to reinforcement demonstrated effectiveness on decreasing tangible-maintained behaviours of the participant. For both participants, an explicit delay cue demonstrated slightly better effects on the participants’ challenging behaviours then a general delay cue.Conclusions: This study adds an evidence to support that delayed reinforcement can be used as an effective strategy to reduce both escape and tangible-maintained challenging behaviours of children with ASD across multiple settings.

How do preschoolers’ sharing behaviors relate to their theory of mind understanding?

This study aimed to explore the development of resource sharing in preschoolers and its relationship with children’s theory of mind (ToM) understanding. A total of 74 2- to 4-year-old Chinese children participated in three tasks with toys that could be shared with a puppet (animated by a female experimenter). In each sharing task, the puppet communicated her desire for children’s items with a series of progressively more explicit cues. Results showed that 2- and 3-year-olds relied on more explicit communicative cues to share resources with others, whereas 4-year-olds shared more spontaneously. In addition, children’s ToM understanding was positively correlated with their sharing behavior independent of their age. Specifically, children who had acquired the ability to understand that people could have different beliefs about the same thing and that people were ignorant if they had not seen the fact shared more spontaneously and shared more items with their playmate than children who had not acquired these two abilities. Findings suggest that preschoolers’ sharing behavior is enhanced by their ToM understanding and explicit communicative cues provided by the playmate.

The cognitive determinants of behavioral distraction by deviant auditory stimuli: a review

Numerous studies have demonstrated that rare and unexpected changes in an otherwise repetitive or structured sound sequence ineluctably break through selective attention and impact negatively on performance in an unrelated task. While the electrophysiological responses to unexpected sounds have been extensively studied, behavioral distraction has received relatively less attention until recently. In this paper, I review work examining the cognitive underpinnings of behavioral distraction by deviant sounds and highlight some of its key determinants. Evidence indicates that deviance distraction (1) derives from the time penalty associated with the involuntary orientation of attention to and away from the deviant sound and from resulting effects such as the reactivation of the relevant task set upon the presentation of the target stimulus; and (2) is mediated by a number of factors (some increasing distraction, such as aging or induced emotions; some decreasing it, such as a memory load or cognitive control). Contrary to the received view that deviants ineluctably elicit distraction, recent work demonstrates that it is contingent upon auditory distractors acting as unspecific warning signals in the service of goal-oriented behavior, and that deviants do not elicit distraction because they are rare but because they violate the cognitive system's predictions (which can be manipulated through implicit rule learning or explicit cueing). Evidence is also presented indicating that the capture of attention by spoken deviant sounds is followed by an involuntary evaluation of their semantic properties, the outcome of which can be robust enough to linger in working memory and interfere with subsequent behavior. Finally, I review studies suggesting that behavioral deviance distraction is not the mere byproduct of the mismatch negativity, P3a and re-orientation negativity electrophysiological responses and highlight a number of outstanding questions for future research.

The development of prospective memory in preschool children using naturalistic tasks

The development of prospective memory (PM) in 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old children (N=123) was assessed in two experiments using several naturalistic game-like tasks that varied in the explicitness of the cues for retrieval that they provided. The goals of the study were to evaluate age differences in PM (a) with the effects of retrospective memory (RM) factored out and (b) as a function of increasing retrieval cue specificity. Results from Experiment 1 showed that there were age differences in PM on a simulated Shopping Trip task that favored older children after age differences attributable to RM were identified in a hierarchical regression. PM and RM components followed the same developmental trajectory. Because the Shopping Trip task provided a visual cue for retrieval, a second naturalistic PM task that was incidental to the Shopping Trip task (i.e., to ask for stickers at the end of the shopping trip) was included but provided no explicit cue other than the end of Shopping Trip task itself. A binary logistic regression showed that age did not predict children who succeeded and those who did not succeed. Because the end of the Shopping Trip task might have cued PM, two new tasks without any explicit cues for retrieval were examined in Experiment 2. Logistic regressions revealed that age predicted PM success on both tasks. With additional cues following failure to retrieve the PM intention, nearly all children succeeded, but the number of cues needed increased with age. The joint and separate contributions of PM and RM to successful task performance are discussed.