Social Psychological Explanations Research Articles

Privacy Barriers in Health Monitoring: Scoping Review.

Health monitoring technologies help patients and older adults live better and stay longer in their own homes. However, there are many factors influencing their adoption of these technologies. Privacy is one of them. The aim of this study was to provide an overview of the privacy barriers in health monitoring from current research, analyze the factors that influence patients to adopt assisted living technologies, provide a social psychological explanation, and propose suggestions for mitigating these barriers in future research. A scoping review was conducted, and web-based literature databases were searched for published studies to explore the available research on privacy barriers in a health monitoring environment. In total, 65 articles met the inclusion criteria and were selected and analyzed. Contradictory findings and results were found in some of the included articles. We analyzed the contradictory findings and provided possible explanations for current barriers, such as demographic differences, information asymmetry, researchers' conceptual confusion, inducible experiment design and its psychological impacts on participants, researchers' confirmation bias, and a lack of distinction among different user roles. We found that few exploratory studies have been conducted so far to collect privacy-related legal norms in a health monitoring environment. Four research questions related to privacy barriers were raised, and an attempt was made to provide answers. This review highlights the problems of some research, summarizes patients' privacy concerns and legal concerns from the studies conducted, and lists the factors that should be considered when gathering and analyzing people's privacy attitudes.

Communal focused or market focused: Moral judgment on business practices in nonprofit organizations

AbstractAlthough the adoption of business‐like practices, such as commercialization and managerialization, may enhance the capacity and sustainability of nonprofit organizations, these practices may elicit negative reactions from the general public. This tension poses a challenge for nonprofit organizations as they seek to strike a balance between implementing practices that promote growth and survival and maintaining public support. This study focuses on people's moral judgment of nonprofits' practices and offers a social psychological explanation for why some business‐like practices may be viewed as inappropriate by the public. Specifically, we illuminate the significance of people's normative preferences for communal‐ or market‐focused principles as a basis for determining how an organization should operate and deliver its services. Using an online experiment with a sample size of 1255 participants, we found that: (1) people express a relatively high level of moral acceptance of business‐like practices, but this level is significantly lower than that of nonprofits' societal practices; (2) individuals are more likely to rate business‐like practices that have revenue‐seeking intentions as less acceptable when they believe that an organization should operate and deliver services based on communal principles. Moreover, our findings reveal that people's normative preferences differ more based on the service (e.g., health, microfinance, art) than on the organizational ownership (nonprofit vs. for‐profit).

Immigration and welfare state sustainability: whose perception is affected by fiscal cost cues?

ABSTRACT Who reacts politically to fiscally costly immigration? A political economy tradition holds that reactions depend on economic self-interest, whereas a social psychology tradition emphasizes generalized political orientations and trust. Past work largely leans in favor of the latter tradition. We make three contributions. First, our dependent variable is a concrete perception of welfare state sustainability, arguably better suited to capture self-interest. Second, both the political economy- and social psychology traditions have been studied narrowly; we separate between multiple interests (including economic local context), and compare several types of trust orientations. Third, we use machine learning methods well-suited to analyze treatment heterogeneity in a randomized survey experiment. We find support for both interest-based and social psychological explanations. As for the latter, what matters is not only, or even mainly, orientations/trust related to immigration. Rather, generalized political distrust strongly regulates when costly immigration cues trigger welfare sustainability worries.

Humor at work that works: A multi-level examination of when and why leader humor promotes employee creativity.

Although the role of leadership in fostering employee creativity has been extensively studied, it is still unclear whether and how leader humor affects employee creativity. Drawing upon cultural representation theory (CRT), we examined creative self-efficacy as a mediator and traditionality as a situational factor in the relationship between leader humor and employee creativity by analyzing a sample of 306 employees and 88 leaders (paired data) collected through survey questionnaire from firms based in Hubei Province, China, covering the industries of automobile, IT, and medicine. Following the multi-level examination, leader humor was positively related to employee creativity, and creative self-efficacy was found to mediate the impact of leader humor on employee creativity. Furthermore, traditionality moderated the effect of leader humor on creative self-efficacy, as well as the indirect effect of leader humor on employee creativity through creative self-efficacy. This study provides a social psychological explanation for the association between humor and employee creativity, deepens the current understanding of the influence process of leader humor. Finally, the theoretical and practical implications of the study are discussed at the end alongside limitations and recommendations for future research.

ANXIETY SENSITIVITY BIAS AND COLLECTIVE ACTION PARADOX IN EPIDEMIC PREVENTION AND RESPONSE IN WESTERN COUNTRIES — AN ANALYSIS BASED ON INCOMPLETE INFORMATION LEARNING MODEL

BackgroundIn order to cope with the public health crisis caused by the 2019 coronavirus disease epidemic, a prominent feature of Western society is that residents are unwilling to take the initiative to wear masks for protection. The cultural tradition and social psychological explanation of this phenomenon is that most people are unwilling to wear masks because the masks in western society have the symbol of uncleanness and weakness. This explanation of cultural tradition and social psychology makes some sense. However, social behavior is also influenced by the government. Why don't Western governments adopt mandatory policies to correct the negative impact of current social psychology from the perspective of ensuring public safety? One popular explanation is that western countries have politicized the 2019 coronavirus epidemic, so they are unwilling to take correct measures to deal with the epidemic. But this irrational explanation is incredible. The managerial man hypothesis is only an ideal abstract concept, but individuals in society may occasionally make irrational behavior because of psychological resistance. But in general, the behavior of institutions and governments is more rational than that of individuals. It is incredible that many Western governments violate the principle of rationality on such a large scale. At the same time, in the face of the COVID-19, a global health emergency, the anxiety sensitivity of people in western countries is also worth paying attention to.Subjects and MethodsBy constructing a learning model under the condition of incomplete information, this paper explains how residents and the government obtain information, and how social values determine the optimal choice of the government in coordinating social collective action. This paper also uses anxiety sensitivity Index-3, which is an evaluation tool developed by Taylor and others based on previous studies. It covers three specific dimensions of anxiety sensitivity construct, involving attention to individual cognition, society and body. Six items in each of the three subscales were scored by Likert level 5 (0 = very few, 1 = less, 2 = medium, 3 = more, 4 = very many), and the total score was used to represent the individual's anxiety sensitivity level [15]. It can also analyze three special factors: social attention, cognitive attention and physical attention. When researchers want to use special factors such as social attention, cognitive attention and physical attention to predict external variables, they can independently explain the prediction results without considering the influence of public factors.ResultsUnder the Bayesian information acquisition rule, when the whole society does not pay attention to cooperative behavior, the seemingly irrational behavior of Western governments reflects the trap of “white lie” and “rational inaction” to deal with the impact of social systemic risk. Results: Our results showed that although anxiety was positively correlated with government media information, it was not statistically significant (P > 0.05). Among the psychological anxiety of the masses, debilitating anxiety dominated, and the results were statistically significant (P < 0.01). This means that debilitating anxiety can be used as an indicator to measure the level of people's anxiety. Our results show that environmental anxiety is negatively correlated with information. The Pearson correlation in the high anxiety group was significantly higher than that in the low anxiety group. This shows that students with less media influence are more likely to be anxious than those with more media influence.ConclusionSocial values affect social psychology, and social psychology affects the effect of government governance. The values and social psychology that bring long-term success to society may also lead to disaster management to deal with sudden crises. The strong individualistic values in western society are conducive to innovative activities in the period of social stability, but not conducive to highly coordinated social collective action in the period of social crisis. In order to avoid these governance traps, in the long run, we can improve the level of trust and cooperation in society by strengthening social capital; In the short term, the prejudice of social psychology against science and technology and scientific researchers must be eliminated. It has better fitting in the Chinese version of anxiety sensitivity Index-3, which is also of great significance for accurately understanding the structure of anxiety sensitivity.AcknowledgementsThis study was supported by the Youth Foundation for Humanities and Social Sciences Research of the Ministry of Education, China (Grant No.18YJC790131), Zhejiang Public Welfare Technology Application Research Funding Project, China (Grant No. LGF22G010002) and Applied Economics Base Project of Zhejiang Wanli University, China (Grant No.SZ10000018).

‘Baby brain’ in pregnancy: A review of social psychological explanations and future research directions

AbstractThe colloquial concept of ‘baby brain’ suggests that throughout pregnancy and into the immediate postpartum period, women have reduced cognitive abilities and are more distracted, forgetful, and incompetent. To date, a plethora of cognitive and neuropsychological research testing the cognitive functioning of pregnant women relative to other groups has yielded inconsistent and unclear findings. However, there is a notable lack of literature that adopts a social psychological perspective, critically assessing the contribution of social context to the ‘baby brain’ phenomenon. In this paper, we review the current ‘baby brain’ literature and outline two potential social perspectives that provide insights into this research area: stereotype threat theory and objectification theory. We argue that inconsistencies in the ‘baby brain’ cognitive literature may be impacted by under‐explored social phenomena, which may result from activation of stereotypes or objectifying cues throughout pregnancy and into early new motherhood. We end with suggestions for future social and personality psychological research directions in the area of ‘baby brain’.

Modernism and the Idea of the Crowd by Judith Paltin

Reviewed by: Modernism and the Idea of the Crowd by Judith Paltin Michelle McSwiggan Kelly (bio) MODERNISM AND THE IDEA OF THE CROWD, by Judith Paltin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020. vii + 225 pp. $99.99 cloth, $80.00 ebook. Every once in a while, we encounter a monograph whose central idea seems so integral to modernist studies that we wonder how it did not exist before. How have the crowds of crowds in modernist literature gone largely unnoticed? Like many other questions that you may have about crowds at the beginning of the twentieth century, Judith Paltin has an answer for that: "I have wondered whether the critical neglect within literary studies may partly arise because narrative analyses are traditionally weighted toward discussing individual actors within plots and settings, and a fortiori, modernist studies, in particular, analyzed so closely and for so many decades the alienated individual who surveys the world from an insulating distance, or who is acting unconventionally against its demands" (166). Evidently, we have not seen the forest through the trees. And in Modernism and the Idea of the Crowd, Paltin reveals some illuminating insights about the crowded forest of modernist literature. Importantly, Paltin clearly defines a crowd as a distinct kind of gathering that does not absorb any grouping of humans, like a mob or horde. The members of the crowd do not necessarily exchange their individual identities for the opportunity to become part of the collective whole: crowds are temporary and heterogeneous. This clarification of the definition of the book's uniting concept is essential [End Page 551] as Paltin examines and builds upon earlier theories of the crowd (by thinkers like Wilfred R. Bion, Gustave Le Bon, Serge Moscovici, Theodor Adorno, Walter Benjamin, and Judith Butler1) to emerge with her own. If this makes it sound like Paltin confronts her reader with a dense crowd of theorists, it is more that she uses a prismatic theoretical approach to present a nuanced and scaffolded vision of the modern crowd. This multi-perspectival and recursive use of theory facilitates a more surprising and revelatory reading of crowds than would otherwise be possible. Among the topics you may not expect to learn about in this book (if you anticipate it to be limited to readings of representations of large gatherings of nameless characters) are how objects shape crowds, how the form of a text can evoke a crowd, the relative legibility of crowds, crowds' responses to natural and built environments, and crowd symbols. The diversity of ways in which Paltin asks us to think about crowds enriches rather than diminishes the central political and historical question about modernist crowds and their relationships to the rise of and resistance to fascist and autocratic governments and empires. A particularly interesting example of how Paltin accomplishes this occurs in the third chapter "Crowds and Transformation" (83) where she presents social-psychological explanations of how crowds think together, temporarily shifting the boundaries of individuals, so that they can perform social functions, like the anti-fascist crowd who blocked the British Union of Fascists at the 1936 Battle of Cable Street in London. Here Paltin delineates between the fascist group, which operates through exclusion, and the anti-fascist crowd, which takes all comers (103). These theoretical and historical insights about the formation of crowds help us to see hard-to-pin-down crowds in modernist literature (like the "Wandering Rocks" episode of Ulysses) in a new light: their fluidity, mobility, and impermanence are markers of their democratic potential. Modernism and the Idea of the Crowd examines the concept of the crowd across an array of modernist writers (like Virginia Woolf, Flann O'Brien, H. G. Wells, Wyndham Lewis, Christopher Isherwood, and Sean O'Casey), but those interested in Joyce and Joseph Conrad may find this study especially edifying because of the frequency with which Paltin returns to their work. This is not to say that the text is a comparative study of Conrad and Joyce, which would miss the point of the book's structure and argument. Rather, Joyce and Conrad are often evoked to demonstrate how twentieth-century preoccupations with the crowd permeate and transform the modernist text. Joyceans...

Science denial and medical misinformation in pandemic times: A psycho-criminological analysis

This study integrates criminological social learning and psychological explanations of individual factors and mechanisms for science denial to offer an individual-level analysis of ‘alternative lifestyle’ subcultural groups in cyberspace in order to understand the assimilation, success and proliferation of potentially dangerous health-related misinformation. Through a rigorous passive online ethnography of two relevant self-identifying ‘alternative lifestyle’ Italian- and English-speaking online communities observed over the initial stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, we observed the unfolding of online narratives and behavioural intentions of criminological and psychological interest. We identified in our data both individual factors and mechanisms for science denial and clues to social learning, and we showed how they interrelate. Furthermore, by looking at the linguistic and visual resources used to shape how participants think through social learning mechanisms, we identified four main narrative frames: informative; oppositional; empathetic; and agency and spirituality. The findings of this study provide a more comprehensive understanding of the reasons for and mechanisms behind medical misinformation online and suggest ways to mitigate the related harms.

Masculinity, Ritual, and Racialized Status Threat: Examining Mass Shooter Manifestos Using Structural Topic Models

Both popular media and research often frame mass shootings as an individual issue having to do with mental illness or other individual differences. This work has unfolded in much the same fashion as that on other negative or anti‐social behaviors—such as the individual pathologization of suicide or rape. However, what this work has shown empirically is that there are often a set of circumstances that are uniquely social that motivate such actions. Following work in sociology, which offers social psychological and cultural explanations for gun violence, we argue that mass shooter motivations reflect social conditions—especially those that instantiate toxic masculinity, social exclusion, and racism—conducive to these events. This article uses a computational textual modeling approach to analyze the distinct social logics that motivate mass shooters. To do this, we identify a sample of 27 publicly available mass shooter “manifestos,” or documents left behind by shooters following their actions. Using topic models, we show that mass shooters exhibit a variety of preoccupations that underlie their actions. While shooters can exhibit a multitude of possible motivations, we find that expressions of masculine overcompensation, ritualistic responses to exclusion, and racialized status threat are prominent features of mass shooter manifestos, corroborating recent sociological explanations of mass shootings.

Social exchange and psychological ownership as complementary pathways from psychological contract fulfillment to organizational citizenship behaviors

PurposeSocial comparison and job-based psychological ownership (JPO) are compared and contrasted as explanations for relationships between organization relational psychological contract fulfillment (ORPCF) and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs).Design/methodology/approachSurvey data were collected from 241 employees and 82 of their managers at an information services company. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling to test for hypothesized and exploratory indirect relationships.FindingsConsistent results were found for sequential mediation from ORPCF to employee investment of the self into the job, to JPO, to supervisor-rated helping and voice OCBs. Employees' perception of their relational psychological contract fulfillment (social exchange) did not simultaneously mediate the relationships between ORPCF and employees' OCBs.Research limitations/implicationsPsychological ownership presents a complement to social exchange to explain effects of relational psychological contract fulfillment on employee outcomes. Because of the cross-sectional nature of the data conclusions about causality are quite limited.Practical implicationsOrganizations and managers should emphasize that fulfillment of relational psychological contract obligations represent a significant investment in employees, who reciprocate by investing themselves into their work. This in turn bolsters JPO and its positive employee outcomes.Originality/valueThis is the first study to directly compare social exchange and psychological ownership explanations for effects of psychological contract fulfillment on employees.

An experimental philosophical bioethical study of how human rights are applied to clitorectomy on infants identified as female and as intersex

Clitorectomies performed on the genitals of infants identified as female and as intersex have been described both as similar procedures and as different procedures. The former types of surgery have been recognised more consistently as human rights abuses than the latter in recent decades. We tested social psychological explanations of why human rights are differently recognised when infants are described as ‘intersex’ or ‘female’; 122 laypeople in the UK read one of two near-identical descriptions of clitorectomies performed on intersex or female infants and reported their agreement with 22 items about the human rights of such infants. Clitorectomies were perceived as violating human rights more by women than by men, and more so when infants were described as female than intersex. Endorsement of human rights was better predicted by several psychological variables when infants were described as female than as intersex. Less politically conservative participants, as assessed by a Right-Wing Authoritarianism measure, and participants who trusted medical authority more recognised human rights violations of female infants more than intersex infants. Results are discussed with respect to human rights efforts to protect infants from medically non-necessary genital surgery on the basis of membership in identity categories or possession of sex characteristics.

Beyond stewardship and dominion? Towards a social psychological explanation of the relationship between religious attitudes and environmental concern

ABSTRACT Research about the religion and environmental attitudes relationship in the United States has yielded mixed results. Some studies find that religion relates to heightened concern about environmental threats and greater environmental interest whereas others find religion relates to diminished concern and interest. A new perspective that applies ideas from psychology and sociology may help resolve these discrepant findings. It is hypothesized that religious meaning reduces concern with environmental threats since meaning helps people cope with distressing stimuli. This reduction is specific to threats and does not extend to environmental interest. Using the 2016 General Social Survey to test this hypothesis, after controlling for sociodemographic and political variables, structural equation modeling shows Americans who are more religious experience diminished sense of danger from environmental threats, yet exhibit heightened general environmental interest. These findings align with the proposed theory and suggest new ways to promote environmentalism and policy change.

Democracy—institutionalized conflict resolution: Social psychological explanation of its decline.

Democracy—institutionalized conflict resolution: Social psychological explanation of its decline.

Social Psychological Explanations of Political Inaction: Citizens’ Perspectives in Brazil, Hungary, and the Netherlands

AbstractEngaging in political action can ensure adequate political representation for citizens. Except for voting, however, only a nonrepresentative, small group of people regularly engages in political action. Social psychological theories provide individual, group, and system‐level explanations for why people could remain inactive. However, they often focus only on personally held attitudes and do not fully consider the dynamics of attitude formation in interactions. Based on 26 focus group discussions conducted in Brazil, Hungary, and the Netherlands, we explored how citizens explain political inaction. We used latent thematic analysis, informed by social psychological theories, to understand how people form opinions about their own and others’ political inaction. In all three countries, the prevalent norm in the focus group discussions was that political inaction should be reduced but a lack of political efficacy constituted a core theme in explaining why people remain politically inactive. Depending on the sociopolitical context and how people self‐categorized within the discussions, people blamed unresponsive governments, or cited personal fears of repercussions and cultural differences within and between countries as reasons for inaction. The findings and interpretations are discussed within a framework that extends and integrates previous perspectives on why people remain politically inactive.

Stereotype threat-effects for Turkish-origin migrants in Germany: Taking stock of cumulative research evidence

Turkish-origin migrants on average show lower academic performance than Germans. This achievement gap cannot be fully explained by socio-economic differences between the groups. Negative competence stereotypes about Turkish-origin students predict the causal attributions that German preservice teachers make for migrants’ academic underperformance. Specifically, the more strongly preservice teachers endorse negative competence stereotypes, the more likely they are to attribute academic underperformance of Turkish-origin migrants to the migrants themselves and less to the educational system. Stereotype threat theory posits that the activation of stereotypes in test situations can reduce the performance of members of the negatively stereotyped group. Based on this theory, we propose that negative stereotypes provide a social-psychological explanation for the academic underperformance of Turkish-origin migrants compared to Germans. A series of six experiments conducted within a research project funded by the German Ministry of Education and Research investigated stereotype threat effects for Turkish-origin migrants. Two new moderator variables were identified: implicit theory of intelligence and vertical collectivism. A meta-analysis of the six studies showed a small, non-significant mean effect for stereotype threat main effects, but a significant medium-sized mean effect for moderated stereotype threat effects. Limitations and practical implications of stereotype threat effects in educational settings are discussed.

Yes we can? Group efficacy beliefs predict collective action, but only when hope is high

Surprisingly, hope is under-researched in contemporary social-psychological explanations of collective action and social change. This may be because collective action research typically focuses on “high-hope” contexts in which it is generally assumed that change is possible (the main appraisal of hope), and thus the main question is whether “we” can change the situation through collective action (i.e., group efficacy beliefs). This line of thought implies that such beliefs should only motivate collective action when hope is high. To test this hypothesis, we conducted three experiments in contexts that were not “high-hope”. In Study 1, conducted within the “low-hope” context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, we found that manipulated group efficacy beliefs did not increase individuals' collective action intentions. Studies 2 and 3 used the contexts of NHS privatization in the United Kingdom and Gun Control Reform in the United States — contexts that were neither “low-hope” nor “high-hope”, which enabled us to manipulate hope and group efficacy beliefs together in one design. Consistent with our hypothesis, findings of both experiments revealed that group efficacy beliefs only predicted collective action when hope was high. Replicating Study 1, when hope was low, group efficacy had no effect on collective action intentions. We discuss our findings in light of the idea that only when hope for social change is established, the question of whether “we” can create change through collective action becomes relevant. Without hope, there can be no basis for agency, which informs goal-directed action.

Canadian Children and Race: Toward an Antiracism Analysis

&lt;div class="page" title="Page 1"&gt;&lt;div class="section"&gt;&lt;div class="layoutArea"&gt;&lt;div class="column"&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span&gt;Psychological research on Canadian children and race has shown that young White and racialized children generally have a pro-White bias. While scholars have utilized developmental &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;or social psychological explanations for this finding, none &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;have used an antiracism lens to interpret children’s racial attitudes or to develop an antiracism pedagogy. To address this research gap, this article uses antiracism theory as an &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;analytical tool to explore the social-historical processes that &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;have affected how children evaluate racial differences and &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;White identity. It also briefly proposes antiracism teaching practices specific to early childhood education settings. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

A Social Psychological Interpretation of the Hermeneutic of Suspicion in Contemporary Legal Thought

The hermeneutic of suspicion is a disposition of participants in legal discourse to interrogate skeptically claims of legal necessity made to justify decision of a legal issue involving significant ideological stakes. The hermeneutic critiques a particular claim of legal necessity and alleges an ideologically motivated error. This article proposes a social psychological explanation of the hermeneutic as the projection of the actor onto his opponent of his own denied ideological motives. The projection lessens the pain of role conflict. Legal technique is supposed to purge ideological motives from legal judgment, but regularly puts the jurist in the position of choosing rather than following law, and requiring that he deny what he is doing. Cause lawyers, whether believers or realists, and legal neutrals, respond differently to the dilemma. Because they are bound to pursue substantive justice as well as legality in an unstable legal field, and substantive justice claims are today not distinguishable from ideological claims, all lawyers have to (should) doubt their own motives. Projection of the denied forbidden motive onto the opponent is solace. But ideology forms law through substance far more than through ideologically motivated error, and this too is elided by the projection.

Managerial Labor Market during Institutional Transition: A study of CEO compensation and voluntary turnover

AbstractManuscript TypeEmpiricalResearch Question/IssueThis paper investigates the influence of CEO compensation on voluntary turnover and the moderating role of the managerial labor market. It explores how institutional contingencies related to labor market transparency, mobility, and competitiveness shape supply and demand conditions of the managerial labor market, and consequently affect the relationship between CEO underpayment and turnover.Research Findings/InsightsUsing a sample of Chinese listed firms between 2002 and 2011, we document that underpaid CEOs are associated with a larger likelihood of voluntary turnover in China. Importantly, we find that CEO underpayment will increase the likelihood of voluntary turnover to a greater extent when executive compensation disclosure is mandatory, when regional labor mobility is higher, and when industry growth rate is larger. Overall, our study demonstrates that underpayment below the market rate motivates CEOs to exit their organizations and such a reaction is more likely to materialize when managerial labor market conditions are favorable enough to create a strong pull force.Theoretical/Academic ImplicationsThis study adopts an interdisciplinary perspective built on institutional theory, organizational psychology, and labor economics to examine the role of the managerial labor market during institutional transition. It integrates the social psychological explanation of turnover with the perspective of labor economics by linking both pull side and push side drivers of organizational participation with demand and supply conditions of the managerial labor market.Practitioner/Policy ImplicationsThis study suggests that the design of executive compensation should consider the ongoing labor market rate for retention and motivation reasons, especially when managerial talent is under tight supply and strong demand.

New social tasks for cognitive psychology; or, new cognitive tasks for social psychology.

To elucidate how differing theories of rationality lead to differing practices, their social rules must be analyzed. This is true not merely in science but also in society at large. This analysis of social thinking requires both the identification of innate cognitive social psychological processes and explanations of their relations with differing rules of rational practice. These new tasks can enable social psychologists to contribute to the study of how social situations facilitate or inhibit rational practice and enable cognitive psychologists to improve social psychological theory. In contrast to dominant current research strategies, social and cognitive psychologists can integrate social studies of rational practices and their consequences with studies of underlying cognitive psychological processes. In this article I do not attempt to carry out these tasks but rather point to both their lack of recognition and their importance.