Experiences Of Postpartum Depression Research Articles

The influence of infant characteristics on postpartum depression among mothers with hospitalized infant in NICU.

The purpose of the study to determine the prevalence of mother postpartum depression and to examine the association between infant characteristics and postpartum depression in the neonatal intensive care unit. A quantitative cross-sectional survey design was conducted in three government teaching hospitals in Jordan. A convenience sample of 188 mothers with hospitalized 188 infants in NICU was recruited. Questionnaires were used to collect the quantitative data, which include Infant Demographic Data Questionnaire, Mother Demographic Data Questionnaire and Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). The study revealed that infant characteristics such as gestational age, medical condition classification, and birth weight are found to be significant factors that influence depression among mothers. The results showed that mothers with infants admitted to NICU experience postpartum depression with a mean of 3.82 and median of 4.04. There were significant differences based on gestational age, birth weight, and classification of medical condition and mothers' postpartum depression. Knowing the relationship of certain infant's characteristics and postpartum depression can help to focus on relevant infant characteristics so that timely interventions to improve mothers' well-being can be developed.

Collaboration With Tribal Stakeholders to Explore Care for Postpartum Depression in the Chickasaw Nation

ObjectiveTo describe and interpret Indigenous women’s experiences of postpartum depression (PPD) from the perspectives of community advisory board members. DesignQualitative, descriptive design with a community-engagement approach. SettingVirtual group interviews. ParticipantsCommunity advisory board members (N = 8) who were tribal employees, citizens of the tribe, and/or family members of citizens who had detailed knowledge of PPD among Indigenous women and issues surrounding their care. MethodsIn video- and audio-recorded virtual group interviews, we asked participants questions using a semistructured interview guide. We used qualitative content analysis to generate results. ResultsMajor themes included The “Who, What, and Where” of PPD in Indigenous Women; Meanings Attributed to PPD in Indigenous Women; Realities of PPD Care in the Chickasaw Nation; and Feasibility, Acceptability, Perceived Barriers, and Facilitators of a Future Collaboration. ConclusionThe participants identified next steps for addressing PPD in the Chickasaw Nation: raise awareness of PPD among providers, patients, and families; improve messaging about PPD to decrease stigma and normalize mental health care; and develop or adapt a culturally appropriate and relevant tool to screen for PPD in Indigenous women.

Marital Satisfaction, Emotion Regulation and Self-Efficacy in Women with Postpartum Depression

The aim of the study is to explore the relationship between marital satisfaction, emotion regulation, and self-efficacy in women experiencing Postpartum Depression. The sample size consisted of N=100 participants which were women with PPD symptoms who visited the OPD of gynecology ward of government hospitals. The selected population age average was 19 to 35 years. Urdu translated scales of Comprehensive Marital Satisfaction Scale, Depression Anxiety Stress Scale, Emotion Regulation Questionnaire and General Self-Efficacy Scale were used for data collection. The information was analyzed using Pearson Product Moment Correlation, Moderation Analysis and Multiple Regression via SPSS 21 version. The conclusion of this research has been demonstrated that there is weak positive correlation between Marital Satisfaction and severity of PPD in women. This study suggests that as Marital Satisfaction increases, the impact of PPD symptoms decreases. It also showed that Self-Efficacy has a strong and significant effect on PPD symptoms as a moderator.

Lived Experiences of Single Mothers After Childbirth: Postpartum Depression (PPD) Stories

This qualitative study used Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis to analyze single mothers' postpartum depression experiences. The study highlighted the problems participants faced as students and single mothers. Satellite campus students participated in the study. The researcher used purposive and snowball sampling to identify 15 teenage single mothers with one to three children. They weren't necessarily diagnosed or treated for PPD. Single mothers experience different postpartum depression symptoms. Insecurity, tearfulness, irritability, physical symptoms, self-blame, self-harm, unreasonableness, giving up, isolation, and suicidal ideations are symptoms experienced during postpartum depression. According to their stories, PPD symptoms could be a result of the abrupt changes in their life as new mothers. Emotion-focused coping, problem-focused coping, and religious coping were most commonly used by single mothers. Future research should investigate these coping methods. This study contributes a theoretical understanding of the postpartum depression experiences and coping mechanisms of single mothers.

New Mothers With Postpartum Depression: A Qualitative Exploration of Healthcare Decision-Making.

Postpartum depression (PPD) is a significant health issue for many new mothers in the weeks and months following a child's birth. Quantitative data suggest that a mother's PPD negatively impacts healthcare decision-making for the child via routine well-baby visits and pediatric care. However, little is known from a qualitative perspective about the factors that challenge or facilitate these healthcare decisions. The purpose of this descriptive qualitative study was to understand the perceptions of new mothers about factors contributing to their healthcare decision-making, for themselves and for their children, while living with PPD. The researchers used purposive sampling to recruit eight women from clinics, community organizations, and social media support groups who met the study's inclusion criteria. Individual semi-structured interviews were carried out with eight participants about their PPD experiences, motherhood, and healthcare decision-making influences. Transcribed interviews and initial themes were shared with participants to verify researcher interpretations and aid in the analysis process. The researchers analyzed interview data using thematic analysis to cultivate an understanding of the phenomenon by identifying and interpreting patterns in the data. Three primary themes were drawn from the data analysis: (1) Importance of Clinician Trust and Support; (2) Balancing the Health of the Mother and Child; and (3) Other Support Structures That Facilitate Healthcare Decision-Making for the Mother and Baby Dyad. Participant experiences underscored the need for cohesive approaches by clinical providers of pre- and postnatal care. Group model approaches to postnatal care appear to mitigate or reduce the impact of PPD.

Risk factors of paternal postpartum depression among Latino fathers: Treatment implications

Several studies of paternal postpartum depression (PPD) typically use homogenous samples. As a growing population and susceptibility to experiencing postpartum depression, little is known about the risk factors associated with paternal postpartum depression among Latino fathers. The nonrandomized convenience sampling strategy yielded a heterogeneous sample of 101 Latino fathers. Predictors of paternal PPD were coping skills, age, having a partner in PPD treatment, and egalitarian gender attitudes were estimated using a single logistic regression model. A second logistic regression model was performed using STATA’s stepwise estimation to obtain a final model with only significant predictors for paternal PPD symptoms. Results from the logistic regression models indicate that Latino fathers who reported higher maladaptive coping skills had increased odds of being above the clinical cutoff for paternal PPD ( OR: 1.99, 95%CI: 1.02–3.90, p < .05). The results of the stepwise logistic regression indicated that increased maladaptive coping skills ( OR: 2.14, 95%CI: .11–4.13) as well as having a partner in PPD treatment ( OR: 2.66, 95%CI: .84–8.44) increased the odds of scoring above the clinical cutoff for paternal PPD. In addition, being older decreased the odds of scoring above the clinical cutoff for paternal PPD ( OR: .87, 95%CI: .77–.99). Findings indicate that when a Latino father is younger, endorses maladaptive coping skills and has a partner in PPD treatment, it is associated with increased odds of paternal PPD. In addition, culturally responsive treatment implications for Latino men are discussed.

"They should ask about our feelings": Mongolian women's experiences of postpartum depression.

Between 16 and 20% of perinatal women in low- and middle-income countries experience depression. Addressing postpartum depression (PPD) requires an appreciation of how it manifests and is understood in different cultural settings. This study explores postpartum Mongolian women's perceptions and experiences of PPD. We conducted interviews with 35 postpartum women who screened positive for possible depression to examine: (1) personal experiences of pregnancy/childbirth; (2) perceived causes and symptoms of PPD; and (3) strategies for help/support for women experiencing PPD. Unless extreme, depression was not viewed as a disease but rather as a natural condition following childbirth. Differences between a biomedical model of PPD and local idioms of distress could explain why awareness about PPD was low. The most reported PPD symptom was emotional volatility expressed as anger and endorsement of fear- or anxiety-related screening questions, suggesting that these might be especially relevant in the Mongolian context. Psychosocial factors, as opposed to biological, were common perceived causes of PPD, especially interpersonal relationship problems, financial strain, and social isolation. Possible barriers to PPD recognition/treatment included lack of awareness about the range of symptoms, reluctance to initiate discussions with providers about mental health, and lack of PPD screening practices by healthcare providers. We conclude that educational campaigns should be implemented in prenatal/postnatal clinics and pediatric settings to help women and families identify PPD symptoms, and possibly destigmatize PPD. Healthcare providers can also help to identify women with PPD through communication with women and families.

The COVID-19 pandemic and the experience of postpartum depression

Background: Early studies assessing peripartum mood disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic have conflicting results. Objective: The primary aim was to examine if postpartum depression (PPD) was more common or more severe during the COVID-19 pandemic compared to earlier periods, and to assess what individual factors may worsen the impact of the pandemic. Methods: Electronic health records at an academic pediatric practice in Michigan identified 242 biological mother-child dyads with delivery between 1/1/2017 and 12/31/2021. PPD was evaluated using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) during well-child visits. Participants were divided into three groups for analysis: Pre-Pandemic (n = 100), Early Pandemic (n = 93), and Later Pandemic (n = 49). Logistic regression analysis was used to predict PPD development, controlling for background factors. Results: After controlling for confounders, the three groups did not differ significantly. Preexisting mental health conditions was a significant (p<.001) moderator; PPD rates peaked early in the pandemic (60%), compared to late pandemic (42%) and pre-pandemic (36%). Women without a mental health diagnosis pre-pregnancy experienced the lowest levels of PPD during the pandemic. Conclusions: Rates of PPD were not significantly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic for most women. However, biological mothers with preexisting mental health conditions had significantly higher rates of PPD.

Nicotine Dependence and Postpartum Depression: A Multicenter Research Network Study

Background Many people who have recently delivered a baby (puerperae) experience postpartum depression. The aim of this study is to examine nicotine dependence within the 5 years prior to delivery (ND5y) as a factor. Methods Data from TriNetX Research Network platform were used. Analysis involved determining risk ratios of postpartum depression among puerperae with/without ND5y in umatched cohorts and propensity score matched cohorts. Results The unmatched sample included 1,460 (13.8%) postpartum puerperae with diagnosed ND5y and 9,138 (86.2%) postpartum puerperae without ND5yt. The matched sample included 1,362 participants with and 1,362 participants without ND5y diagnosis. The unmatched and matched risk ratios were 1.75 (95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 1.55, 1.98; p < 0.0001) and 0.68 (95% [CI]: 0.59, 0.79; p < 0.0001), respectively. Conclusion Postpartum depression was associated with ND5y in the unmatched sample analysis, but not in the matched sample analysis. As a potential mechanism is unknown, it is possible that some of the matched variables have a shared mechanism with post-partum depression and matching may have masked the true relationship. Therefore, both the unmatched and propensity matched analyses are presented as both have important relevance and may spur future research with non-clinical-based data.

Abstract P4-05-05: The Psycho-Social Factors Impacting Black Women Breast Cancer Survivors

Abstract Background: Breast Cancer (BC) mortality rates disproportionately affect African American (AA) women over any other racial or ethnic group in the United States. However, questions about how AA women who survive the disease navigate psychosocial factors such as body image, self-esteem, stigma and shame, thoughts and fears surrounding fertility, and romantic relationships remain unanswered. This study’s primary research question is, "How do AA women BC survivors create a new normal post-breast cancer while figuring out their own identity?" Methods: This qualitative study aims to address the psychosocial factors experienced by 20 AA women BC survivors in the U.S. The 20 women were recruited to participate in the IRB-approved study (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) through the Tigerlily Foundation, a non-profit breast cancer advocacy organization. The total duration of the study lasted a maximum of 1 hour and 45 minutes with participants answering one pre-interview questionnaire for demographic purposes and one interview with a member of the research team. Results: Preliminary results from the data conclude that AA women BC survivors, and potentially all cancer survivors, mirror individuals in the postpartum phase. Being postpartum is not inherently harmful; however, if one begins to experience symptoms of depression, loss of appetite, irritability, and insomnia for an extended period, there is a high possibility they are experiencing Postpartum Depression (PPD). BC survivors experience numerous changes that can drastically impact their quality of life. AA women BC survivors struggle immensely with body image and self-confidence issues after experiencing breast cancer, various surgeries, and treatments. Conclusion: If BC survivors, particularly AA women BC survivors experiencing systemic and institutional racism, are treated with the same care postpartum individuals are given, there can be a shift in how oncologists work with BC survivors. Creating more personalized survivorship care plans between patients, oncologists, and hospital-based social workers can improve psychosocial factors experienced by AA women BC survivors. Citation Format: Virginia Leach. The Psycho-Social Factors Impacting Black Women Breast Cancer Survivors [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 2022 San Antonio Breast Cancer Symposium; 2022 Dec 6-10; San Antonio, TX. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2023;83(5 Suppl):Abstract nr P4-05-05.

Prevalence and Factors Associated with Maternal Postpartum Depression among Mothers in Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Postpartum depression (PPD) is a serious public health problem in many Middle Eastern countries. Mothers with PPD experience various extreme symptoms that affect their daily lives. This study aims to discover how common PPD is in the Jazan region, the most significant risk factors, and how likely depressed women are to seek help. An observational cross-sectional survey targeting a sample of 444 mothers in their first year after delivery using a pre-tested and validated EDPS standard tool to evaluate the prevalence of postpartum depression amongst them has been conducted. The data was collected and then analyzed using SPSS. Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics were used for data analysis. Multivariate logistic regression was used to assess the risk factors associated with PPD. The results indicate an extremely high prevalence of PPD in Jazan (75.7%). The prevalence of mothers having suicidal ideation was 6.3% quite often, 5.0% sometimes, and 7.9% hardly. Regarding the duration of depression symptoms, 34.78% were less than a month, 20.72% were less than six months, and 13.06% were less than one year. The study shows that the development of depression symptoms occurred within less than a week for 30.4% of the women. The most significant association with PPD was a lack of family support, which significantly increased the risk of PPD (OR = 5.9; p-value < 0.001). The mothers who had unexpected pregnancies had a risk of PPD (OR = 2.5; p-value < 0.001). Current research has revealed a high prevalence of postpartum depression among mothers in the Jazan region and that it is associated with different risk factors that increase the probability of PPD development. Pregnant women need to raise their awareness about PPD and learn how to avoid or deal with it.

PERAN KONSELING PASTORAL BAGI IBU YANG MENGALAMI POSTPARTUM DEPRESSION DI BAWAH USIA DUA PULUH TAHUN

Postpartum depression or postpartum depression is experienced by mothers who get more pressure in their lives after giving birth. A mother who is not ready mentally, physically, economically and spiritually is very vulnerable to experiencing postpartum depression. The method used in this study is descriptive qualitative which seeks to describe a social phenomenon, where the data collected is first explained, then analyzed and formulated. This study aims to show the role of pastoral counseling for mothers who experience depression, specifically for adolescents aged less than 20 years. A woman who will give birth should be aged 20 years and over in order to reduce the depressions that appear and other disorders.

Faktor-Faktor Penyebab Depresi Pasca Persalinan

This study aims to determine the factors that cause postpartum depression. This research method is a systematic review by searching for article data sources through electronic databases, namely Pubmed, ScienceDirect, Proquest, and Google Scholar (2016-2020). The results showed that 18 research articles included higher factors for postpartum depression, namely young age, multiparity parity, history of abortion, and lack of husband and family social support. Mothers who work high experience postpartum depression. The factors that are more likely to experience postpartum depression are a history of childbirth complications, the sex of the unwanted baby, higher education, widowed or unmarried women, unplanned pregnancy, low economy, domestic violence, and marital satisfaction. In conclusion, the factors that can cause postpartum depression are age, parity, history of abortion, social support, husband, family, occupation, history of childbirth complications, sex of the baby, education, marital status, unplanned pregnancy, and economic status, violence. Household and marital satisfaction.&#x0D; &#x0D; Keywords: Causing Factors, Depression, Postpartum

Early Identification of Risk at Postpartum Depression Among Primipara Adolescent Mother and Adult Mother: A Comparative Analysis

Introduction: Postpartum depression on porturition mother will cause big damage to mother, infant and family. The committed research shows that there is no clear result of depression if it connects to the age of mother during pregnancy, but that depression brings high result in postpartum periode. Purpose: The aim of research to know the difference between the risk of a occurence of postpartum depression to primipara adolescent mother and middle adulthood mother. Methods : this analitic survey with cross sectional approach. The sample size comprised 40 respondents with purposive sampling. Variable used on this study were demographical data as the dependent variables and independent variables who fulfilled inclusion criteria, and variable of confounding. After ensuring the distribution and normality of data, univarable analysis and bivariable analysis used unpaired statistic independent test t-test, multivariat analysis used multiple linear regression. Results : The primipara adolescent mother was risky to experience postpartum depression was 11 or 55,0% with average ±s.b 12,6±2,5 from 20 respondents, and primapara middle adulthood mother was not risky to experience postpartum depression was 17 or 85,0% with average ±s.b 6,6±3,4 from 20 respondents; pvalue&lt;0,05 or 0,000&lt;0,005; average difference CI95% 6,0 (4,0-7,9). Factor which dominated the occurence of postpartum depression was economy status and family support with pvalue 0,001&lt;0,05, ANOVA test 0,000&lt;0,05, and Rsquare 65,90%. Conclusion : The primipara adolescent mother was risky to experience the occurence of postpartum depression than primipara middle adulthood mother. From other variable, the factor which dominated the occurence of pospartum depression were economy status and family support.

Effects of gestational low dose perfluorooctanoic acid on maternal and "anxiety-like" behavior in dams.

Pregnancy is a unique critical window with nearly ubiquitous exposure to low concentrations of endocrine disrupting chemicals, such as per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Human and animal research suggests that PFAS compounds disrupt hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function, with some evidence of altered “anxiety-like” behavior, but little is known about the potential effects on maternal mental health following exposures during pregnancy. Evaluating the consequences of gestational PFAS exposures on maternal health is essential, because approximately 1 in 10 women experience postpartum depression, often with increased anxiety. To address this gap, dams were exposed to a low dose, 0.1 mg/kg, of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) from gestational day 0 to birth. Maternal behavior was then observed from postnatal days 5–9, and “anxiety-like” behavior was measured using open field spontaneous locomotor behavior and elevated plus maze following weaning. No difference was observed in the litter size or sex of offspring. Gestational PFOA exposure altered maternal behavior. Despite similar nursing durations, PFOA dams spent more time nursing in a flat posture and on their side, and less time in kyphosis. Despite significantly quicker first contact, PFOA dams did not return pups to the nest quicker, indicating reduced retrieval latency. At weaning, dams displayed increased “anxiety-like” behaviors in the elevated plus maze with a significantly higher mean duration in the closed arms and reduced choice frequency with significantly lower number of entries in the closed and open arms. PFOA dams showed reductions in ambulatory movement across the session. Pregnancy exposure to PFOA altered both maternal and “anxiety-like” behavior in dams. Additional assays focused on depression-associated behaviors, such as forced swim, anhedonia, and social preference, will further delineate behavioral mechanisms. Further research on the effects of environmental contaminant exposures during pregnancy should investigate how co-exposures to other risk factors, such as stress, may enhance behavioral toxicity. Understanding how environmental contaminant exposure during pregnancy effects maternal depression-associated, and/or “anxiety-like” behavior is necessary for the public health protection of women.

Postpartum Mood and Anxiety Disorders: A Lexicon of Metaphors.

Undiagnosed and untreated postpartum mental health disorders represent a silent health crisis. The aim of this paper was to develop a lexicon of metaphors women use to describe their postpartum mood and anxiety disorders to assist holistic nurses in recognizing as early as possible these struggling mothers. Mothers may not know the medical terminology to articulate their mental health problems and may turn to using metaphors. The metaphors included in this lexicon were obtained from the author's earlier qualitative studies of metaphors women used to describe their experiences of postpartum depression, postpartum panic disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder due to traumatic childbirth. In this lexicon these metaphors are organized by these three mental health disorders and includes a table of definitions of each metaphor along with examples of the context of the metaphors represented by quotes from the mothers. Metaphors can be keys that open and unlock doors that stand between holistic nurses and their patients. Being attentive to metaphorical language women use to describe how they are feeling after giving birth can be an innovative approach holistic nurses can use to identify these vulnerable women and provide an opportunity to nurture and empower new mothers.

"It Took Away the Joy:" First American Mothers' Experiences with Postpartum Depression.

Postpartum depression (PPD) is a devastating mental illness associated with adverse health outcomes for mother, child, and family. Higher PPD prevalence in First American women suggests a racial/ethnic disparity, yet little is known about how PPD is experienced from their perspective. To 1) describe First American women's PPD experiences and the meanings they ascribe to those experiences and 2) describe the cultural knowledge, influences, and practices during the perinatal period. This phenomenological study used a community-based participatory research approach. Criterion and snowball sampling captured First American women who had PPD now or in the past (N = 8). Interviews used a semistructured guide and thematic analysis followed. Mean age was 30.25 years. Most women were multigravidas (n = 7) and rated themselves as "very" (n = 4) or "mostly" (n = 3) Native American. Women were mostly of low socioeconomic status and had a history of depression (n = 7) and/or a history of prenatal depression (n = 6). Themes: 1) stressors that contributed to PPD; 2) how PPD made me feel; 3) what made my PPD better; 4) heritage-centered practices; 5) support through PPD; 6) how I felt after PPD; and 7) am I a good mother? This study provides a better understanding of some First American women's PPD experiences that facilitates judgment of the importance of PPD within a cultural context. Clinicians need to create culturally appropriate responses to First American women's PPD needs.

A Brief Review on Postpartum Depression

Postpartum depression is a medical condition in which a woman faces mental issues after delivery. Postpartum depression is associated with anxiety, mood swings, tiredness, feeling scared all the time, trouble sleeping or sleeping, weight loss, stress eating, losing interest, sudden weight gain, and difficulty concentrating or making decisions, fatigue and several other issues. It can happen during pregnancy as well as after giving birth. Some women experience baby blues while some experience postpartum depression. Women feel depressed and sadly most of the time. Depression can make it difficult for mother to take care of herself and the child. Various lifestyle choices also need to be mentioned while talking about factors causing PPD. Some factors affecting PPD are lack of physical activity and exercise, bad eating habits, disturbed sleep cycle etc. it may include hormonal changes, sleep deprivation, risk factors, psychological stress. One of the chief factors affecting postpartum depression is the sleep cycle. It is seen that less sleep is brought near to postnatal depression. Exercise, psychosocial support, physical stretching or working activity can decrease symptoms of depression. Exercise causes the release of mood-boosting hormones such as dopamine and serotonin, which elevates the mood. Low esteem caused by depression can be decreased by an elevated mood. Exercise can also increase endogenous endorphins and opioids which gives a positive mood. It also increases problem solving capacity and confidence. The most common management methods used for managing depression are psychological support, professional help, interpersonal psychotherapy and cognitive therapy.

The moderating role of resilience resources in the association between stressful life events and symptoms of postpartum depression

BackgroundOne in seven women experience postpartum depression, posing a serious public health concern. One of the most robust predictors of elevated postpartum depressive symptoms is major stressful life events that occur during pregnancy. Having greater resilience resources that promote successful adaptation to stressful demands may be protective in the face of stress during pregnancy. The current study tested whether three resilience resources— mastery, dispositional optimism, and spirituality— each predicted early symptoms of postpartum depression and moderated the hypothesized association between experiencing stressful life events during pregnancy and symptoms of postpartum depression. MethodsThe sample included 233 women who participated in a prospective longitudinal study from pregnancy through postpartum. Depressive symptoms were assessed at approximately 4 to 8 weeks after birth, whereas resilience resources and stressful life events were measured in pregnancy. Multiple linear regressions were used to test hypotheses. ResultsStressful life events predicted greater symptoms of depression postpartum. Mastery and optimism predicted fewer symptoms of depression postpartum. Mastery moderated the association between stressful life events and symptoms of depression when controlling for previous psychiatric history, t(231) = -1.97, p=.0497. LimitationsThere was some attrition among study participants across timepoints, which was accounted for in analyses with multiple imputation. ConclusionsThese findings point to the protective nature of a mother's sense of mastery in the face of major life stressors during pregnancy and suggest this is an important construct to target in interventions addressing postpartum depression.

Investigating the Association Between Labour Epidural Analgesia and Postpartum Depression: A Prospective Cohort Study

(Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2020;37:796–802) Approximately 10-15% of women worldwide experience postpartum depression (PPD) following childbirth, which can lead to suicidal behaviors, infanticide, decreased maternal cognitive function and even increased behavioral problems in children. Given the incidence of and morbidity associated with PPD, recent efforts have focused on identifying modifiable risk factors that may contribute to the development of PPD. The primary aim of this study was to determine whether an association exists between the use of epidural analgesia (EA) during labor and the development of PPD.