Expectancy Violations Theory Research Articles

A committed brand facing moral dilemma crises: the role of inferred goodwill and self-brand connection in consumer regret

Purpose In an era of blurred moral boundaries, brands face “moral dilemma crises”, which are distinguished from traditional crises. Based on expectancy violations theory, this study aims to explore how consumers interpret (inferred goodwill) and evaluate (consumer regret) the precrisis committed brands, reinforced by corporate ability and responsibility (expectancies) during moral dilemma crises and whether self-brand connection moderates this relationship. Design/methodology/approach The main study used a scenario-based online survey with a purchased beauty brand, analyzed via structural equation modeling and PROCESS macro, to examine the effects of corporate ability and responsibility on regret, mediated by inferred goodwill and moderated by self-brand connection. A validation study with a fictitious brand used an online experimental design, analyzed with t-tests and ANCOVAs. Findings When corporate ability and corporate responsibility are considered together, corporate ability negatively impacts inferred goodwill (boomerang effect), whereas corporate responsibility positively impacts inferred goodwill (buffering effect). Inferred goodwill acts as a mediator that reduces regret. The negative impact of corporate ability on inferred goodwill and regret becomes stronger among consumers with strong self-brand connections. However, self-brand connection does not moderate the relationship between corporate responsibility and inferred goodwill. Originality/value This research extends the application of expectancy violations theory to moral dilemma crises, differentiates between the effects of corporate ability and responsibility, highlights the role of inferred goodwill and regret and explores the moderating effects of self-brand connection, providing tailored insights for brand management.

Co-present mobile phone use as an expectancy violation: revisiting ‘phubbing’ in two lab-based experiments

ABSTRACT Two lab-based experiments (N = 81 and N = 74) examined effects of co-present mobile phone use (frequently conceptualized as ‘phubbing’) on how individuals experience social interactions. The first experiment was modeled after the original Expectancy Violation Theory experiment by Burgoon and Le Poire (1993). Results showed that phubbing predicted perceptions of expectancy violation. These perceptions mediated the association between phubbing and several indicators of both impression formation as well as interpersonal attraction. The second experiment showed that more intensive phubbing led to poorer ratings of the confederate’s attentiveness, conversation quality, and perceived relationship quality than less intensive phubbing. Together, the two experiments support that phubbing, especially when it is more intensive, can harm relational outcomes.

Leading while playing: How leader fun pursuit affects leadership perceptions and evaluations

AbstractAlthough pursuing fun seems contradictory to work, it may yield beneficial outcomes for not only employees but also leaders in the workplace. The present paper aims to bridge the gap between the workplace fun/play literature and leadership research by introducing the concept of leader fun pursuit and examining its influence on followers' evaluations. Moreover, drawing on the dual perspective model of social evaluation and expectancy violation theory, we examine the effects of leader fun pursuit on followers' perceptions of leader attributes and evaluations of leadership, and posit a gender‐contingent boundary condition. We conducted three studies to develop a scale and examine our hypotheses. Study 1 (four samples, total N = 734) developed a four‐item scale to measure leader fun pursuit and established its reliability and validity. Study 2 (N = 309) used a multi‐wave design to examine the full model. Study 3 (N = 279) used a vignette‐based experiment to strengthen the internal validity of our conceptual model. We found that leader fun pursuit generally enhances followers' evaluations of the leader, and this effect was especially pronounced for female leaders. Overall, we introduce a novel approach to effective leadership and examine the gender differences therein.

I Am Not Your Typical Chatbot: Hedonic and Utilitarian Evaluation of Open-Domain Chatbots

With the development of natural language processing (NLP), open-domain chatbots can operate as companions. The success of open-domain chatbots depends on understanding how positive and negative expectancy violations affect both utilitarian and hedonic gratification, which in turn influences user satisfaction and continued use. Therefore, this study examines how violations of expectations influence the hedonic and utilitarian evaluations of open-domain chatbots using the expectancy-violation theory. Participants (n = 204) interacted with an improvising AI chatbot and reported their satisfaction. Results indicated that both hedonic and utilitarian satisfaction were higher when negative expectations were met compared to when expectations were violated. However, no significant difference was found in hedonic gratification between the chatbot’s expected performance and positively unexpected performance. Conversations meeting expectations elicited more utilitarian satisfaction than positively surprising interactions. These findings highlight the dynamics between value types and expectation violations in AI chatbot evaluations.

Expectancy Violations and Discontinuance Behavior in Live-Streaming Commerce: Exploring Human Interactions with Virtual Streamers.

Virtual streamers, as a typical application of AI-enabled digital humans, are increasingly being utilized in live-streaming commerce due to technological advancements and industry innovations. Although virtual streamers present several benefits, there is potential for adverse effects when they do not align with consumer expectations. Drawing upon expectancy violations theory, this study developed a theoretical model to explore whether and how consumers' expectation violations during human-virtual streamer interactions affect consumers' discontinuance behavior. Through an online questionnaire survey of 307 Chinese consumers with prior experience interacting with virtual streamers, this study used a partial least squares structural equation model to analyze the research model. The empirical results indicated that professionalism expectation violation, empathy expectation violation, and responsiveness expectation violation positively influenced consumers' distrust and dissatisfaction, which subsequently led to discontinuance behavior. This study contributes to the literature on live-streaming commerce, human-AI interaction, and expectancy violation theory. Furthermore, the findings offer valuable insights for practitioners in the field of live-streaming commerce by enabling them to formulate preventive or remedial strategies to mitigate potential negative outcomes when implementing virtual streamers.

Technology acquisitions and investor expectations: Reputation and expectancy violation perspectives

AbstractEmploying the organizational reputation lens and expectancy violation theory (EVT), I examine how financial market investors (investors) affect the technology acquisition activity and the likelihood of survival of firms facing technological change. I theorize that when a firm has a growth reputation, that is, investors expect revenue growth in future periods, the likelihood of making an acquisition will increase in anticipation of a positive expectancy violation on the part of investors. In contrast, for a firm that has an income reputation, that is, investors expect shareholder returns in future periods, the likelihood of making an acquisition will decrease in avoidance of a negative expectancy violation on the part of investors. I predict a novel moderating effect of investor expectations—a firm's acquisition activity will exert a stronger positive effect on its likelihood of surviving technological change when investor expectations are growth‐oriented, that is, when there is a positive expectancy violation. Using a multi‐industry sample of industry convergence, a salient form of technological change, I find support for my theoretical predictions. I advance research that examines the reactions of investors to firm strategies during technological change to the domain of technology acquisitions, a salient strategic decision. I also expand the predictive utility of the reputation lens and EVT to the context of firm survival during technological change.

Impression management in the boardroom: How CEO facial trustworthiness influences turnover risk

This paper examines the effect of perceived trustworthiness on the turnover of Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) and its moderating role in the relationship between firm performance and CEO turnover. We employ a unique dataset comprising headshots of male CEOs in US-listed firms from 2010 to 2019 and a machine learning-based facial landmark detector to construct a composite facial trustworthiness index. Our results show that CEOs exhibiting high facial trustworthiness experience a lower turnover risk. We also find that facial trustworthiness strongly influences the link between firm performance and CEO turnover. Well-performing executives have a lower risk of being dismissed from their positions, and the dismissal risk is even lower among CEOs perceived as having a high facial trustworthiness. Conversely, underperforming CEOs are more likely to be dismissed, and the dismissal probability is greater among CEOs who have been perceived as being highly trustworthy. Our findings are consistent with the predictions of the expectancy violation theory, which posits that trustworthy-looking executives are more likely to be punished if they do not live up to the expectations held by the board of directors.

Striking a Balance: The Effect of Capability and Character Reputation Claims on Crowdfunding Performance

Drawing from expectancy violations theory, we examine the effect of entrepreneurs’ claims about their ventures’ capability reputation and character reputation on crowdfunding performance. We propose that capability reputation and character reputation claims benefit crowdfunding performance—but only up to a point—until crowdfunding backers begin to perceive it as over-claiming (inverted-U relationship). We also suggest the effect of entrepreneurs’ capability and character reputation claims are highly contingent upon whether the entrepreneur has launched a commercial or social campaign. Our analysis of 68,899 crowdfunding campaigns strongly supports our theoretical predictions.

Navigating Morality in Parasocial Relationships. Exploring the Dynamics of Affective Disposition, Moral Foundations, and Expectancy Violations in Mediated Relationships

ABSTRACT The morality of a media character’s behavior and its influence on viewers’ parasocial relationships (PSRs) are analyzed based on different theoretical perspectives on media entertainment and psychological theories. Affective disposition theory is used to explain the relationship between moral judgments and character liking. Viewers’ connections with media characters are analyzed in the context of longer-term PSRs. Accordingly, morality is treated as a multidimensional construct that consists of care, fairness, authority, loyalty, and purity. These five moral domains are applied to viewers’ moral foundations and to the behaviors of media characters. Additionally, viewers’ moral expectations and their influence on viewers’ PSRs are considered based on the expectancy violations theory. In an experimental study, the morality of a character’s behavior was manipulated (moral vs. ambiguous vs. immoral), and the effect on viewers’ PSRs based on their moral foundations and moral expectations in the five moral domains was analyzed. The results show that while moral behavior generally strengthens viewers’ PSRs, different effects emerge when viewers’ moral foundations and expectations are considered. The different patterns that emerged between the five moral domains underline the importance of a multidimensional approach to morality in this mediated setting.

Taking Advantage of Their Seniority: How the Misbehavior of Senior Tourists Influence Young Adults’ Prosocial Behavior Towards Them

Although the senior tourism sector is widely recognized as a growing market, misbehaviors by elderly tourists is an under researched issue within the field of tourism. This paper offers insights into inappropriate behaviors by senior tourists and explores the responses of young adults toward such instances of misbehavior. Through a multimethod approach, we reveal that the intentional (vs. unintentional) misbehavior by senior tourists results in reduced prosocial behavior in young adults. The social class signifiers of senior tourists who intentionally misbehave significantly influence the responses of young adults, with those perceived to be of a high social class drawing harsher judgements. This effect holds for young adults with high benevolent ageism but is constrained by low benevolent ageism in young adults. Our findings extend the application of expectancy violation theory and moral foundations theory to tourist misbehaviors and we conclude by offering suggestions for improving intergenerational relationships at tourist destinations.

Should we meet in person or on Facetime?

The present study drew from expectancy violations theory, predicted outcome value (POV) theory, and the modality switching perspective to examine online daters who subsequently met for FtF-like communication. Hierarchical regression analyses tested whether online daters’ post-modality switch (MS) expectedness ratings, evaluations, and POV forecasts were related to their: (a) pre-MS length of online association; (b) number of pre-MS partner photos seen; (c) use of pre-MS phone calls; and (d) decision to hold the first FtF-like meeting in person or through video chat. Behavioral and physical appearance expectedness ratings were positively related to the number of pre-MS partner photos seen, and curvilinearly (inverted-u shape) related to daters’ pre-MS length of association. Physical appearance evaluations were positively associated with the number of pre-MS photos seen, while behavioral and physical appearance evaluations displayed positive associations with pre-MS phone calls. Finally, post-MS POV forecasts were positively associated with the number of pre-MS partner photos seen, holding the MS through video chat, post-MS assessments of a partner’s behavioral expectedness, and post-MS evaluations of a partner’s behavioral and physical appearance. An interaction also emerged for behavioral expectedness and evaluation on POV, which implied that negative expectancy violations were more useful than positive violations in predicting a relationship’s potential viability.

Investigating the existence of ethnic bias in professional services

The underrepresentation of ethnic minorities persists in professional service organizations because some are reluctant to hire minority employees owing to fear of negative customer evaluations. I apply expectancy violation theory to challenge the assumptions behind such hiring practice and predict that in unambiguous service encounters between majority customers and minority professional service providers (PSP) detrimental consequences are less salient. In four scenario-based studies in two contexts (lawyer, physician), I manipulate PSP ethnicity status and find that clients rate minority (vs. majority) PSPs more favorably in terms of competence, satisfaction, and rapport; rapport also mediates the relationship between PSP ethnicity status and clients’ compliance with their advice. This relationship is moderated by social dominance orientation too. A fifth study shows that the predicted relationships largely hold for positively and negatively valenced encounters. These results suggest an absence of bias effects in professional service settings and have implications for research and practice.

How violation of consumers’ expectations causes perceived betrayal and related behaviors: Theoretical perspectives from expectancy violation theory

Expectancy violation theory was used as a theoretical foundation to predict the influence of brands' norms violation, expectation violation, and moral violation in developing luxury brands' consumers' betrayals. We examined the perceived influence of betrayal on consumers' behaviors, such as vindictive complaining and retaliatory behavior. The present framework also checked the boundary effects of post-purchase regret on the impact of perceived betrayal on vindictive complaining and retaliatory behavior. Data was collected from 378 luxury brand consumers using a web-administered questionnaire. We applied PLS-SEM using SmartPLS 4.0. To analyze the data. Our results revealed that predictors, i.e., norm violation, expectation violation, and moral violation, positively develop consumers' perceived betrayal. Perceived betrayal significantly triggers vindictive complaining and retaliatory behavior. This research found that moderating effects of post-purchase regret strengthen the association between consumers’ betrayal and behavioral outcomes. We enrich our understanding of betrayal and consumer psychology, identifying how positive outcomes cause negative emotions in consumer behavioral responses and offering strategies for managers of luxury brands. We also acknowledge shortcomings and highlight future avenues for research.

Irresponsible to others but responsible to me: Testing employees' responses to external corporate social irresponsibility and internal corporate social responsibility

AbstractDrawing upon deonance theory and expectancy violation theory, we investigate how employees react when their companies engage in corporate social irresponsibility (CSiR) that harms external stakeholders who are not employees themselves. Furthermore, we introduce the concept of perceived internal corporate social responsibility (CSR), which refers to employees' perceptions of how organizational actions and policies benefit them personally. We developed a conceptual model that illustrates the joint influence of external CSiR and internal CSR on employees' perceptual, relational, and behavioral outcomes. An online survey with 417 full‐time US employees revealed that employees tend to evaluate unethical corporate practices holistically, in the context of other factors, such as the company's moral character and internal CSR, rather than based on external immorality. Our study contributes to a deeper understanding of employee reactions to both CSR and CSiR, emphasizing the importance of organizations evaluating the broader ramifications of their unethical actions.

Neutral news from in- and out-party media and attitudes toward them: integration of expectancy violations theory and hostile media perceptions

ABSTRACT The contemporary U.S. media environment is characterized by a strong partisan divide. Both Democrats and Republicans express strong distrust in oppositional media and accuse them of showing partisan bias. Clearly, this public opinion climate is not helpful to a healthy democracy. Unlike the common wisdom, these news outlets do provide neutral political coverage. Based on propositions from expectancy violation theory and hostile media perceptions, we test the effects of exposure to neutral news from an out-party outlet on violation interpretation and attitudes toward oppositional media. An online experiment (N = 610) shows that exposure to neutral news from an out-party outlet leads to violation unexpectedness and valence for Democrats and violation valence for Republicans. We also find an indirect positive effect of exposure to neutral news on attitudes toward an out-party outlet through violation valence for Democrats and Republicans. Unlike what can be expected of hostile media perceptions, these effects are more noticeable for stronger partisans. Our study also reveals different patterns of partisan reactions to neutral news from in-party outlets. Theoretical implications are discussed.

Green with Arrogance: Dominant Brands Benefit from Arrogant Appeals

Consumers increasingly expect brands to contribute positively to the environment. This trend has created a race for brands to establish their “green” credentials. Asserting their superiority—a strategy we refer to as an arrogant appeal—may allow some brands to connect with this consumer preference if perceived as credible; however, when this brand communication lacks credibility, consumers lose trust and suspect brands of greenwashing. Applying expectancy violation theory and signaling theory to green advertising, we find a specific message source (level of brand dominance) influences the effectiveness of an arrogant appeal. Specifically, via the use of two experiments, we demonstrate that consumers use market dominance as a cue to establish the credibility of an arrogant appeal. This research (a) builds on comparative advertising literature to introduce the concept of arrogant appeal to the literature, (b) identifies a new credibility signal—brand dominance—for the effectiveness of green advertising appeals, (c) extends marketing research on arrogance to message design and source characteristics, and (d) discusses the ethical ramifications of consumers inferring credibility based on market dominance. A critical finding is that more dominant brands have earned the right to deploy an arrogant appeal based on a consumer heuristic.

The Way She Moves: Political Repositioning and Gender Stereotypes

Abstract Research on policy shifts has found that repositioning can be costly as it affects candidates’ perceived honesty, reliability, and competence. It remains unclear, however, whether a politician’s gender affects perceptions of repositioning. Research on gender stereotypes has found that while male politicians are viewed as more competent, decisive, and displaying strong leadership, female politicians are believed to be more honest. Applying expectancy-violation theory, I test the hypothesis that the reputational cost of repositioning is more pronounced for female politicians in a preregistered survey experiment fielded on a large convenience sample in Flanders, Belgium (n = 6,957). I find that while frequent repositioning is evaluated negatively, the negative effect of repositioning is not more pronounced for female candidates than for male candidates on most outcome measures.

Death walks into a bar: Humor and profanity in advance care planning messages

Although scholars note advantages and disadvantages to using humor and profanity, influential leaders in the Death Positive Movement (DPM) use both message features to motivate end-of-life (EOL) advance care planning (ACP). Through the lens of expectancy violations theory (EVT), this study examined relationships between perceived humor, profanity in messages, trait profanity use in receivers, perceived offensiveness, perceived speaker effectiveness, and perceived message effectiveness. Participants (N = 604) were randomly exposed to a podcast about ACP containing clean humor, profane humor, or no humor. Results indicated that profanity and perceived humor were positively related to offensiveness, and offensiveness was negatively related to perceived speaker and message effectiveness. When perceived as non-offensive, perceived humor was positively related to perceived speaker and message effectiveness. Surprisingly, profane messages offended profane receivers more than they offended less-profane receivers. These results suggest that to be maximally effective, ACP motivators should use humor cautiously and avoid profanity.

A Contingency View of Impression Management: Heterogeneous Investor Responses to CEO Positive Portrayal of Mergers and Acquisitions

AbstractExisting research has suggested seemingly contradictory conclusions about the efficacy of impression management (IM) tactics. While a growing body of research highlights the potential benefits of IM, other studies imply that the effectiveness of these tactics in shaping stakeholder perceptions may be limited. Our study advances theory on IM by drawing upon expectancy violations theory to develop a contingency theory of IM efficacy. Concentrating on CEOs’ positive portrayal of merger and acquisition (M&A) activity, we hypothesize that the effectiveness of this IM tactic hinges on factors related to the communicator (CEO duality), context (acquisition foreshadowing), and audience (investor type). Our results indicate that investor reactions to CEOs’ positive portrayal are more favourable when M&A activity has been foreshadowed or when the institutional investor is transient. Conversely, reactions are less favourable for CEOs also serving as board chair. Our findings provide novel insights into IM theory, suggesting that potential expectancy violations associated with IM tactics could be shaped by the attributes of communicator, context, and audience.

It’s Unexpected but Good: Leader Traditionality Fuels Greater Follower Reciprocation to Servant Leadership

Integrating expectancy violation theory and social exchange theory, we investigate the role of leader traditionality in augmenting the positive effect of servant leadership in promoting follower reciprocation in three studies. In Study 1, we substantiate in an experiment that individuals indeed expect leaders possessing traditional values to be less likely to engage in servant leadership behaviors compared with leaders who are low in traditionality. Further, we test our full model in an experiment (Study 2) and find support for our hypothesis that the relationship between servant leadership, follower trust in the leader, and subsequent follower organizational citizenship behavior is stronger for leaders higher (vs. lower) in traditional values. Replicating the findings from Study 2, we conduct a field investigation (Study 3) with multiwave and multisource data from a Fortune 500 company and obtain full support for our model. The consistent findings across our studies provide strong support for the role of leader traditionality in altering the social exchange relationship between servant leaders and their followers.