Expatriate Assignments Research Articles

Virtual expatriate assignments and host country national support: The role of higher-level construals in social categorization processes

Although extant research on expatriate management has explored the drivers of host country nationals’ (HCNs’) support for expatriates in traditional physical work environments, there is limited understanding in the context of virtual expatriate assignments. This necessitates further theorizing that departs from the presupposition that HCNs and expatriates interact physically. It integrates the particularities of working virtually to understand if and how the virtual context affects the provision of HCN support for expatriates, and whether related social categorization and identification processes work differently as part of virtual assignments. We draw on social identity and construal level theory and develop a conceptual model explaining the emergence of three types of HCN support that virtual assignees can receive, i.e., emotional support, appraisal support, and informational job support. We focus on the interplay between social categorization mechanisms and higher-level construals and, thus, more interpersonal neutrality and social disengagement originating from the virtual work context. We contribute by deriving a set of propositions that outlines the varied consequences of performing the expatriate job role virtually, with a particular focus on the provision of different types of support for expatriates by HCN co-workers.

Bolstering the transfer of expatriate training: A conceptual model integrating the roles of accountability and identity

AbstractAlthough organizations increasingly rely on and invest heavily in expatriate assignments, a large proportion of these assignments fail. Given a notable gap in the expatriate literature, we advance a conceptual model focused on improving transfer of expatriate training to the host country work role as a means of addressing these challenges. We integrate relevant theory on expatriate cross‐cultural training, expatriate identity, and accountability for transfer to propose a conceptual model that delineates specific mechanisms through which the transfer of expatriate training, and ultimately expatriate adjustment, can be facilitated. Our model and specific research propositions are premised on the role of identity due to its centrality in developing a sense of accountability for transferring training, and its relevance to the success of expatriate assignments. The propositions and practical recommendations, unlike existing transfer strategies that are sometimes atheoretical or implemented haphazardly, are anchored in a common lens of accountability and identity. By doing so, we uniquely provide systematic and strategic insight about efforts to improve expatriate training, thus facilitating expatriation. A conceptual model and testable research propositions provide numerous pathways for advancing future research focused on the success of expatriate assignments through training. Practical guidance and recommendations, as yoked to a shared theoretical foundation, are presented to help organizations and managers bolster the transfer of expatriate training.

Cross-cultural training and expatriate adjustment: an assessment of expatriates on assignment in African countries

PurposeThis study aims to contribute to the enrichment of the literature by examining the impact of cross-cultural training on expatriates’ adjustment of Nigerian bankers on expatriate assignments in other African countries.Design/methodology/approachData on cross-cultural adjustment from expatriate employees in five banks that collectively accounted for over 80 per cent of Nigerian banks with subsidiaries in other African were systematically selected for the investigation. This data was collected quantitatively via a survey instrument. Independent sample t-test, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and regression analysis were deployed in analyzing the data.FindingsThe study found that cross-cultural adjustment varied significantly across the different categories of gender, age, marital status, previous expatriate training, previous expatriate experience, and duration of expatriation. The study concludes that in order to attain higher levels of adjustment African banks and other organizations should provide a more comprehensive cross-cultural training program that mirrors the needs of employees following a detailed needs analysis. Also, the training must be sequential and not a one-off approach.Originality/valueThe literature though still nascent is largely focused on expatriate preparation and adjustment for expatriates moving from Western-to-western contexts and very little exists in the literature on how multinationals from Non-Western contexts like Africa prepare their staff for expatriation and its consequent impact on their adjustment. This study aims to enrich the literature by examining the impact of cross-cultural training on expatriates’ adjustment of Nigerian bankers on expatriate assignments in other African countries.

A paradox theory lens for developing cross-cultural competence: Mindset, behavior, and work design

Cross-cultural competence (CCC) is one of the most effective means for expatriates to overcome cultural tensions and liabilities of foreignness on international assignments. Drawing upon a paradox theory lens, this study delineates a moderated mediation model that unpacks the mindset, behavior, and work design features which empower the development of CCC in the context of expatriate assignment. To test this model, we obtained survey data from 244 expatriate managers, matched with survey responses from 244 local colleagues, nominated by each expatriate. Structural equation modelling revealed that both holistic thinking and attributional complexity predict CCC via paradoxical behavior. In addition, opportunity-enhancing work design positively moderated the indirect relationship between attributional complexity and CCC. Such findings highlight the importance of embracing a paradox mindset and paradoxical behaviors for competency building on international tasks. The practical implications for expatriate selection, training, and continuous development are also discussed.

Impact of Cultural Intelligence on Expatriate Performance in Multinational Corporations in Ghana

Purpose: The aim of the study was to assess the impact of cultural intelligence on expatriate performance in multinational corporations in Ghana. Methodology: This study adopted a desk methodology. A desk study research design is commonly known as secondary data collection. This is basically collecting data from existing resources preferably because of its low cost advantage as compared to a field research. Our current study looked into already published studies and reports as the data was easily accessed through online journals and libraries. Findings: A study on the impact of cultural intelligence (CQ) on expatriate performance in multinational corporations (MNCs) operating in Ghana revealed significant correlations between CQ and various performance dimensions. Expatriates with higher levels of CQ demonstrated greater adaptation to the local culture, improved communication effectiveness, and higher job performance. These findings underscore the importance of cultural intelligence as a critical competency for expatriates navigating diverse cultural contexts, particularly in emerging markets like Ghana. Additionally, the study highlighted the need for MNCs to prioritize CQ development programs to enhance the success of expatriate assignments and improve overall organizational performance in culturally diverse environments. Implications to Theory, Practice and Policy: Social learning theory, self-efficacy theory and cultural distance theory may be use to anchor future studies on assessing the impact of cultural intelligence on expatriate performance in multinational corporations in Ghana. Develop and implement targeted cultural intelligence training programs for expatriates to enhance their effectiveness in diverse cultural environments. Advocate for the integration of cultural intelligence assessments into the selection and recruitment processes for expatriate assignments within MNCs.

Reviewing and revising Black et al’s adjustment model(s)

Previous reviews of Black et al’s expatriation and repatriation adjustment models have evaluated the influence and reliability of the models. In this paper, we examine the changing and varied nature of engagement with the models in journal articles on international adjustment to investigate the implications of contemporary changes among expatriates and their behaviours and experiences. 699 peer-reviewed academic articles published between 1991 and 2021 were systematically reviewed. Our analysis reveals that while more than 80% of the articles referenced their model(s), only a third explicitly applied the model(s). Drawing on our findings, we advance a revised version of Black et al’s conceptual framework, which integrates their models into a combined stage-adjustment model applicable to both assigned expatriates (AEs) and non-assigned expatriates (NAEs).

Talents as career capitalists: how talent management programs influence individual career paths

ABSTRACT The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of global talent management (TM) on the career paths of those individuals identified as talents by their organisation, taking a career capital perspective. The research is based on a qualitative, explorative single-case study in a multinational company (MNC). 37 interviews were conducted, including 29 with talents and 8 with HR managers working in seven countries across Europe. The results show that exclusive TM programs lead to the accumulation of career capital and more precisely company-specific career capital, which influences the career paths of participants: it leads to a hybrid intra-organisational career type with frequent career moves (including across divisions) and expatriate assignments. Finally, my work suggests that talents accumulate company-specific career capital, which increases their career satisfaction and intention to stay within the company. The findings of this research contribute to the careers and TM literature streams by making three research propositions to be tested. It also provides practitioners with insights into how to develop and retain talent.

Air Pollution Effect on Expatriate Assignments: An Interactive Perspective on MNEs and Expatriates

Air Pollution Effect on Expatriate Assignments: An Interactive Perspective on MNEs and Expatriates

Career success of expatriates: the impacts of career capital, expatriate type, career type and career stage

PurposeThis paper investigates whether career capital (CC) development abroad, expatriate type, career type and career stage affect expatriates' career success in terms of perceived marketability and the number of promotions.Design/methodology/approachThe study presents findings from a 2020 follow-up study among 327 expatriates, including assigned expatriates (AEs) (n = 117) and self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) (n = 220), who worked abroad in 2015 and 2016. Among that group, 186 had continued their international career, while 141 had repatriated. Structural equation modeling with robust maximum likelihood estimation was used to test this study's hypotheses. MPlus 8.6 software supported the analysis.FindingsThe study outlines that CC developed abroad positively impacts perceived marketability and the number of promotions. Second, repatriates reported a greater degree of perceived marketability than those continuing an international career. Career type did not predict the number of promotions. The expatriate type did not influence any of the career success measures. Finally, expatriates in their late-career stage did not achieve a similar level of career success as those in other career stages.Research limitations/implicationsAll the expatriates were university-educated Finnish engineers and business professionals, and the career benefits of expatriation could differ for different sample groups. The study calls for more context-sensitive global careers research. The findings have positive implications for self-guided career actors considering working abroad. Organizations could focus more of their global talent attraction, management and career efforts on SIEs.Originality/valueTo analyze the impacts of these four antecedents on the career success of expatriates, the authors cooperated with two Finnish labor unions in 2020 to explore the careers of 327 expatriates, having surveyed the same group in 2015/2016. Such follow-up studies are not very common in expatriation research since it is difficult to keep track of expatriates who change locations and employers.

Expatriation and repatriation as one integrated process: the roles of developmental assignments, repatriate turnover, employee willingness for expatriation and repatriation support practices

PurposeThis paper aims to integrate the perspectives of expatriation and repatriation not as two unrelated stages but rather as one integrated process.Design/methodology/approachA sample comprising 94 human resource (HR) representatives from large Taiwanese multinational corporations (MNCs) provided objective data on the organizational expatriate/repatriate practices.FindingsThe use of developmental assignments was positively related to organizational repatriate turnover, but such a positive relationship was significant only when MNCs used low levels of repatriation support practices. Organizational repatriate turnover was negatively related to employee willingness for expatriation and the use of developmental assignments increased employee willingness for expatriation. Organizational repatriate turnover was a competitive mediator between the use of developmental assignments and employee willingness for expatriation. Moreover, organizational repatriate turnover mediated the relationship when MNCs used low levels of repatriation support practices, but not when MNCs used high levels of repatriation support practices.Practical implicationsMNCs should ensure the use of development assignments is matched with high levels of repatriation support practices and treat expatriation and repatriation management as one integrated process.Originality/valueAs the world economy becomes more integrated, MNCs are increasingly challenged in their efforts to send employees abroad on expatriate assignments that are developmental by design, to reduce organizational repatriate turnover and to increase employee willingness for expatriation. However, there is a lack of understanding about how they are all linked.

Constraining and contributing factors of an expatriate assignment life cycle

Orientation: Globalisation necessitated the physical movement of talented employees, leading to expatriate assignments to foreign countries. Investigative studies and strategy development were needed to moderate the high failure rate of such assignments.Research purpose: To explore the constraining and contributing factors of an expatriate assignment lifecycle.Motivation for the study: With only 40% of assignments being successful, there is an urgent need to find and rectify the reasons for the failure in order to mitigate the associated financial losses and threatened sustainability of businesses.Research approach, design and method: A qualitative research methodology within an exploratory research design was used. The opinions of the expatriates were compared using subjective, interpretivist and phenomenological dimensions.Main findings: Based on the lived experience of the expatriates, the constraining factors were a lack of training and mentoring, inadequate cultural acclimatisation, ambiguous policies, unsupportive host organisation, low-quality logistics support and ineffective re-induction of the expatriates into the home country. The expatriates strongly consider career path planning, effective ongoing training and mentoring, a caring organisational culture, clear assignment policies and social relations to be decisive contributing factors.Practical and managerial implications: The international human resource management process can use the findings to reduce the global assignment failure rates. It provides clear directions for driving relevant strategies and processes for successful expatriation operations.Contribution: The study contributes to the existing body of knowledge on the constraining and contributing factors of the expatriate assignment. It sets a course to initiate further studies to evolve a sustainable framework for an efficient global mobility programme.

Relationship between Cultural Origin of Multinational Companies and Employing Expatriates in Foreign Subsidiaries in Central and Eastern Europe

Abstract In the present study, we examine the question of whether the cultural characteristics of the country of the parent company are related to the posting practices of the parent company. According to our hypothesis, the management culture of the sending (parent) company influences the employment of foreign expats in local subsidiaries. In this research we use interviews and multivariate statistical analysis of survey data from five CEE countries, an important but relatively less examined region for global HR mobility. We found a significant relationship between cultural differences and expatriate assignment practices of MNCs. However, based on the strength of the relationship, we can conclude that in addition to management culture, other influencing factors typically influence posting decisions. Our results support Hofstede’s suggestion about the cultural dependence of management methods from a specific, management of expatriates, perspective.

Job exhaustion among assigned and self-initiated expatriates – the role of effort and reward

PurposeThis study explores whether expatriation type (assigned expatriates (AEs) versus self-initiated expatriates (SIEs)) is linked to job exhaustion via possible differences in required efforts for their jobs and the rewards they gain from them, and/or the balance between efforts and rewards. Adopting effort–reward imbalance (ERI) and job demands/resources (JD-R) theories, the authors study the possible role of ERI as a mediator between expatriation type and job exhaustion.Design/methodology/approachAn online survey was carried out in co-operation with two Finnish trade unions, providing representative data from 484 assigned and SIEs. The authors test this study’s hypotheses through latent structural equation modelling, and the analysis was conducted with Stata 17.0 software.FindingsThe results show that ERI between them are correlated with the job exhaustion of expatriates in general and there are no direct links between expatriation type and job exhaustion. The required effort from AEs was higher than that from SIEs though no difference was found for rewards, and the match between effort demands and rewards is less favourable for AEs than SIEs. AEs experienced higher job exhaustion than SIEs because of the higher effort demands and greater imbalance between efforts and rewards.Originality/valueThe study examines the work well-being of two types of expatriates and explores the underlying mechanisms that may explain why they may differ from each other.

A meta‐analysis of the antecedents of employee willingness to expatriate

Expatriates play a critical role in the long‐term success of global organizations; however, expatriate assignments are risky endeavors, and not all employees are keen on such opportunities. Thus, it is critical that we examine the antecedents of employee willingness to expatriate. In this first such meta‐analysis, we drew on data from 55 studies (published in English and Traditional Chinese), and identified 22 antecedents. Results indicate that education, self‐efficacy, prior international experience, language skills, cultural intelligence, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, openness to experience, the importance of assignment value, financial support and career support were positively related to employee willingness to expatriate. Some societal differences were identified. We then discuss implications and offer future research directions.

Role of perceived organizational support in cross-cultural adjustment: A mediating career satisfaction model

Previous researches were focused on assigned expatriates (AEs) and their cross-cultural adjustment (CCA) and their perks and incentives. Self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) employees are self-made and mostly neglected pool of talent and mostly based from individual perspective. The purpose of this paper is to test the impact of perceived organizational support (POS) on CCA of SIEs employees mediated by career satisfaction (CS) of SIEs employees. We conducted mediation analysis on 124 SIEs working in USA, and result supported our proposed model. It shows that there is positive effect of POS on CCA and CS. And POS also shows positive indirect effect on CCA through CS. Further we discussed the implication and limitation of this study.

Recruiting business expatriates in Portugal: a surefooted endeavor?

PurposeManagerial discourses tend to portray work-related mobility practices in a positive light, presenting mobility assignments as a place of stimulus and differentiation. A conception of mobility as an opportunity, may contrast, in specific economies and business settings, with lived personal experiences. This article reports the results of a three-year study, aimed to question how multinational companies (MNCs) located in a small and developing European economy (Portugal) are building talent pools for expatriate assignments. Interaction effects, as proposed by the job demands-resources (JD-R) theory, are considered as lens to understand the interplay of company expatriate policies, willingness profiles and psychological contracts of expatriates. By using a Portuguese sample, the study examines whether prior findings in mature economies and consolidated MNCs can be generalized to less developed international business settings.Design/methodology/approachA three-year study, encompassing 24 expatriate cases observed in five multinational firms born or located in Portugal. Two techniques of empirical data collection were used: statistical sources and documental analysis and in-depth interviews. A total of 37 interviews were conducted, both in-person and remotely, of which 13 were with company managers and representatives, and 24 with expatriates (as defined and referred like this by the companies under study).FindingsHeterogeneous company policies, ranging from juvenile, functionalist to more dynamic and flow-based approaches, are presented as qualifying resources of willingness levels and psychological contracts of expatriates. Observed interaction effects between policies, willingness and psychological contracts, empirically mirrored in three profiles (conformist, protean and disrupted expatriates) suggest that incentive effects (emanating from company policies) and job demand-resource balance, factored as terms of social and economic trade, are non-linear and asymmetric, influencing firm propensity to succeed while using international work to support company expansion goals. As job resources, expatriate policies are presented as operating as pull or push factors: functionalist HR approaches seem to act as push factors generating more conformist or compelled willingness profiles.Research limitations/implicationsGeneralization of study's outcomes has limitations. Future studies are encouraged to use comparative and longitudinal research designs. Furthermore, future research should include business expatriates with entry-level positions, and increase the number of interviewees, as results can also be considered as limited by sample size.Practical implicationsIt is suggested that further strategic work is needed to present expatriation development value, formally screen and consider willingness level as selection criteria, and enlarge the pool (from internal to external) of candidates, in peripheral economic settings such as Portugal. A shift to more dynamic and job resource-dense policies are suggested as beneficial, as pathway to optimize social and economic value from expatriation assignments and work experiences.Originality/valueBy putting the interplay between macro and micro-level processes into perspective, the study provides empirical evidence on how company expatriate policies have come to promote unforeseen differentiation of employee willingness and psychological contracts at the heart of MNCs. This is particularly relevant in developing economies such as Portugal, challenging the need to build talent pools for international work assignments. Empirical data illustrating company policies interactive effects with different willingness profiles and psychological contracts of expatriates is provided.

How Career Adaptability, Job Fit, and Job Characteristics Impact Expatriates’ Career Success

Expatriation is a highly developmental experience for individuals frequently amidst a context of higher autonomy, increased responsibility, and fewer support structures. Thus, this developmental experience impacts their future careers after the international assignment (IA). The next move – repatriation or re-expatriation to a new assignment – is an important transition that entails many changes in assignees' lives and represents both opportunities and threats for their career development. In order to analyse the implications of expatriation on the subjective and objective career success of two types of expatriates, assigned expatriates (AEs) and self-initiated expatriates (SIEs), we investigated data from 202 assignees five years after their initial work abroad. Our findings indicate that expatriate job characteristics, job fit after the IA, the degree of assignees' career adaptability, and expatriate type impact the career success of expatriates. We found that the expatriate type moderates the relationship between expatriates’ career adaptability and objective career success. The work contributes to our understanding of boundaryless, international careers.

A squeezed lemon or an appetizing olive? Exploring expatriate and repatriate talent management

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to investigate Global Talent Management (GTM) approaches and praxis with a specific focus on global deployment goal congruence and alignment between expatriates and the organization, talent recognition, valuation and utilization of repatriates.Design/methodology/approachQualitative research in this paper entails interviews with 78 expatriates and repatriates across the globe, investigating their experiences with, perspectives on and perceptions of GTM praxis and approaches.FindingsFindings of this study revealed firstly, that there is incongruence and misalignment of goals in global deployment where organizational, financial goals prevailed over social and human-oriented goals. Secondly, a lack of global talent pools and pipelines where interviewees indicated that expatriate assignments (EAs) were typically reactionary without strategic forward thinking on talent management (TM), observable through organizations' focus on short-term return on investment (ROI) on EAs instead of long-term talent investments. Thirdly, there was little recognition and non-utilization of cross-cultural human capital and talents upon repatriation.Research limitations/implicationsThis study relied on self-reports of expatriates' and repatriates' perceptions of and experiences with GTM approaches. Future research should gather multi-actor, multiple-source data from expatriates and repatriates, senior leaders, line managers, GTM strategic business partners to gain more insight into GTM approaches and praxis.Practical implicationsOrganizations are recommended to conduct “Global Talent Management Open Strategy Formation” as the foundation of an evidence-based, integrative GTM architecture and praxis to ensure GTM effectiveness.Originality/valueThis paper contributes to the literature by advocating for sustainable, people-centric GTM to safeguard the longevity and sustainability of all members of the talent ecosystem.

Recruiting Business Expatriates in Portugal: The Moderating Role of Employee Willingness

The present study examines the practices that multinational companies located in a small, open and peripheral European economy (Portugal) are acting to build talent pools for expatriate assignments. The role of employee willingness (to go) is explored as a dimension influencing the existing firm staffing practices’ success. By using a Portuguese sample, the study examines whether prior findings in mature economies and consolidated multinational companies can be generalised to peripheral and less-developed international business settings. Five business contexts and 24 expatriate cases were considered to ground empirical analysis. The prevalence of internal recruitment practices, informal and closed systems and staffing criteria, and less established international mobility and staffing experience, suggest the existence of critical differences with the current best-of-breed practices. Study findings indicate that divergent willingness profiles operate as moderating factors of firm propensity to use international work to support expansion goals. A typology of business expatriate willingness profiles ( conformist expatriates, trajectory-focused expatriates and disrupted expatriates) is proposed to showcase expatriation assignments as a contemporary socioeconomic heterogenetic condition.

A transactional stress and coping perspective on expatriation: new insights on the roles of age, gender and expatriate type

PurposeThis work sheds new light on the roles of gender, age and expatriation type—self-initiated expatriate (SIE) vs. assigned expatriate (AE)—by applying the transactional theory of stress and coping (and a validated measurement tool) to the expatriation experience.Design/methodology/approachBased on quantitative data from 448 expatriates, the authors examined the coping mechanisms (cognitions and actions) employed by senior and younger expatriates, females and males and SIE and AEs when they face hardships while working abroad.FindingsYounger expatriates display less active problem-solving coping, planning, and restraint and consume more alcohol and drugs. Female expatriates express their emotions and use social support more than their male counterparts. SIEs rely on emotional social support more than AEs.Practical implicationsRecognizing that individual repertoires of responses to expatriate challenges are bounded by personal characteristics—such as age, gender, and expatriation type—should improve efforts to support expatriates. This research suggests that expatriate support should be tailored. It offers indications on who needs what.Originality/valueThis work provides a fresh perspective and new insights into classic topics (age, gender, and expatriation type). Individuals react differently abroad. They have different resources and face different demands (to a certain extent) that lead to different coping reactions. Older people manage their emotions better, and female expatriates and SIEs gather and use support; these abilities are assets abroad.