Invasive Exotic Plant Species Research Articles

Plant networks are more connected by invasive brome and native shrub facilitation in Central California drylands

Dominant vegetation in many ecosystems is an integral component of structure and habitat. In many drylands, native shrubs function as foundation species that benefit other plants and animals. However, invasive exotic plant species can comprise a significant proportion of the vegetation. In Central California drylands, the facilitative shrub Ephedra californica and the invasive Bromus rubens are widely dispersed and common. Using comprehensive survey data structured by shrub and open gaps for the region, we compared network structure with and without this native shrub canopy and with and without the invasive brome. The presence of the invasive brome profoundly shifted the network measure of centrality in the microsites structured by a shrub canopy (centrality scores increased from 4.3 under shrubs without brome to 6.3, i.e. a relative increase of 42%). This strongly suggests that plant species such as brome can undermine the positive and stabilizing effects of native foundation plant species provided by shrubs in drylands by changing the frequency that the remaining species connect to one another. The net proportion of positive and negative associations was consistent across all microsites (approximately 50% with a total of 14% non-random co-occurrences on average) suggesting that these plant-plant networks are rewired but not more negative. Maintaining resilience in biodiversity thus needs to capitalize on protecting native shrubs whilst also controlling invasive grass species particularly when associated with shrubs.

A multitaxa approach to biodiversity inventory in Matela protected area (Terceira, Azores, Portugal).

This manuscript is the first contribution of the project, "Matela - uma ilha de biodiversidade" ("Matela - an island of biodiversity"), that aims to restore the native vegetation within the Azorean Protected Area of the Terceira Island Nature Park known as the "Protected Area for the Management of Habitats or Species of Matela" (TER08), situated on Terceira Island, the Azores Archipelago, Portugal. This small fragment of native forest, positioned at a low-medium altitude (300-400 m a.s.l.), is facing some conservation impacts as a consequence of the spread of different invasive exotic plant species, mainly Pittosporumundulatum, Rubusulmifolius and Hedychiumgardnerianum. The database we present encompasses diverse taxonomic groups, including bryophytes, vascular plants, arthropods, birds and mammals. It is derived from intensive sampling campaigns conducted in 2022, but some data from a previous vascular plant survey in 2015 were also included. The objective of this study was to provide an updated inventory of bryophytes, vascular plants, arthropods, birds and mammals within this protected area. In this way we are providing the reference conditions necessary for the monitoring of the impacts of the current ongoing restoration efforts within the project "Matela - an island of biodiversity". Whenever feasible, the present inventory is juxtaposed with historical data from previous surveys conducted in Matela. In the realm of bryophytes, our analysis revealed the presence of 75 taxa, comprising 44 mosses and 32 liverworts. Amongst these, 71 were indigenous, while three remained indeterminate and one, Campylopusintroflexus, was identified as invasive. A comparison with previous historical data revealed a decrease in species richness, which was partially counterbalanced by the discovery of 23 new recorded species in the area.Regarding vascular plants, we distinguished 54 species, comprising 28 indigenous and 26 introduced taxa. Almost 80% of the inventoried species (n = 43) were newly documented in Matela.The study of arthropods encompassed a total of 103 taxa. Within the realm of soil arthropods, we documented eight indigenous and 25 introduced taxa, witnessing the disappearance of endemic species alongside a substantial increase in introduced ones between 2002 and 2022. Canopy arthropods, totalling 36 indigenous and 18 introduced taxa, exhibited few changes when compared with data from 2002. SLAM traps captured 24 indigenous and 15 introduced arthropod taxa and no historical data are available for comparison.As for avian species, we noted 12 indigenous birds and one introduced species, confirming the presence of most of the historical recorded native species.The mammalian census revealed eight introduced species, setting new precedents for Matela, alongside the identification of one endemic species: the Azorean endemic bat Nyctalusazoreum.

Virome release of an invasive exotic plant species in southern France.

The increase in human-mediated introduction of plant species to new regions has resulted in a rise of invasive exotic plant species (IEPS) that has had significant effects on biodiversity and ecosystem processes. One commonly accepted mechanism of invasions is that proposed by the enemy release hypothesis (ERH), which states that IEPS free from their native herbivores and natural enemies in new environments can outcompete indigenous species and become invasive. We here propose the virome release hypothesis (VRH) as a virus-centered variant of the conventional ERH that is only focused on enemies. The VRH predicts that vertically transmitted plant-associated viruses (PAV, encompassing phytoviruses and mycoviruses) should be co-introduced during the dissemination of the IEPS, while horizontally transmitted PAV of IEPS should be left behind or should not be locally transmitted in the introduced area due to a maladaptation of local vectors. To document the VRH, virome richness and composition as well as PAV prevalence, co-infection, host range, and transmission modes were compared between indigenous plant species and an invasive grass, cane bluestem (Bothriochloa barbinodis), in both its introduced range (southern France) and one area of its native range (Sonoran Desert, Arizona, USA). Contrary to the VRH, we show that invasive populations of B. barbinodis in France were not associated with a lower PAV prevalence or richness than native populations of B. barbinodis from the USA. However, comparison of virome compositions and network analyses further revealed more diverse and complex plant-virus interactions in the French ecosystem, with a significant richness of mycoviruses. Setting mycoviruses apart, only one putatively vertically transmitted phytovirus (belonging to the Amalgaviridae family) and one putatively horizontally transmitted phytovirus (belonging to the Geminiviridae family) were identified from B. barbinodis plants in the introduced area. Collectively, these characteristics of the B. barbinodis-associated PAV community in southern France suggest that a virome release phase may have immediately followed the introduction of B. barbinodis to France in the 1960s or 1970s, and that, since then, the invasive populations of this IEPS have already transitioned out of this virome release phase, and have started interacting with several local mycoviruses and a few local plant viruses.

Management of the mycorrhizal and rhizobial associations to mitigate the negative effects of Grevillea banksii on the development of Dalbergia trichocarpa an endemic tree species

This study aims to improve the development of Dalbergia trichocarpa, a Malagasy native tree species, on a soil invaded by Grevillea banksii, an invasive plant species in eastern part of Madagascar, by inoculating seedlings with mycorrhizal fungal, Rhizophagus irregularis and AMFn strains or rhizobial STM609 and Rn strains, or a mixed rhizobial-mycorrhizal strains. After five months of growth, the results showed that single or dual inoculation boosted significantly the development of D. trichocarpa, compared to control treatments and all parameters measured were markedly different between the time periods of plant invasions. Indeed, the dry mass of aerial biomass was significantly higher in inoculated seedlings than in control seedlings. It was also observed that the number of nodules and the arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization rates of D. trichocarpa increased significantly with inoculated plantlets. However, soil inoculated with the rhizobial strain STM609 alone showed a significantly high global soil microbial activity and the dual inoculation has promoted the soil acid phosphatase activity. These results suggest that dual inoculation with rhizobial and arbuscular mycorrhizal strains was significantly beneficial to the growth, nodulation and mycorrhizal colonization rates of D. trichocarpa in the soil overgrown by G. banksii, an invasive exotic plant species. Thus, this biotechnology can be used for restoration of degraded ecosystems in Madagascar with native tree species.

Invasive clonal plants possess greater capacity for division of labor than natives in high patch contrast environments.

Invasion success of clonal plants is closely related to their unique clonal life history, and clonal division of labor is a crucial clonal trait. However, so far, it is unclear whether invasive alien clonal species generally possess a greater capacity for division of labor than native species and whether this pattern is affected by environmental conditions. To test whether patch contrast affects the differences in the capacity for division of labor between invasive alien and native clonal plants, we selected five pairs of exotic invasive and native clonal plant species that are congeneric and co-occurring in China as experimental materials. We grew the clonal fragment pairs of these invasive and native plants under high, low, or no contrast of reciprocal patchiness of light and nutrient, respectively, with ramet connections either severed (division of labor prevented) or kept intact (division of labor allowed). The results showed that connection significantly decreased the proportion of biomass allocated to roots in distal (younger) ramets, whereas it increased in proximal (older) ramets of all studied plants under high -contrast treatments. This clear pattern strongly indicated the occurrence of division of labor. Furthermore, the connection had a more pronounced effect on the pattern of biomass allocation of invasive alien plants, resulting in a greater increase in biomass for invasive alien plants compared to native plants. These findings suggest that the invasive alien plants possess a greater capacity for division of labor, which may confer a competitive advantage to them over natives, thus facilitating their invasion success in some heterogeneous habitats such as forest edges where light and soil nutrients show a high negative correlation.

INFLUENCE OF INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES ON SOIL PROPERTIES IN TROPICAL RIPARIAN ZONES

Riparian zones are highly productive biodiversity-rich transition areas. However, the invasion of exotic plant species depletes diversity and productivity, a severe global environmental concern as they alter ecosystem services. The analysis of spatio-temporal variations of soil nutrients in an invasive plant-impacted riparian zone is significant. This study was conducted in the riparian zones of a tropical river basin, Vamanapuram river basin (VRB), Southern Western Ghats, India, to analyse soil samples (total n= 60) from invaded (VR) and uninvaded (Control) areas for pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Organic Carbon (OC), available nitrogen (AN), available phosphorus (AP), and available potassium (AK). In general, comparing the invaded and control sites, changes were noticed in almost all the above physico-chemical parameters (except OC) at a significant level with high values in invaded soil sites mainly due to invasion. However, more studies are needed to differentiate the impacts within the system for a better understanding of invasive plant-soil interactions.

An exotic plant successfully invaded as a passenger driven by light availability.

Invasive exotic plant species (IEPs) are widely distributed across the globe, but whether IEPs are drivers or passengers of habitat change in the invaded spaces remains unclear. Here, we carried out a vegetation and soil survey in 2018 and two independent field experiments (Pedicularis kansuensis removal in 2014 and 2015, and fertilization experiment since 2012) and found that the invasive annual P. kansuensis was at a disadvantage in light competition compared with perennial native grasses, but the successful invasion of P. kansuensis was due to the sufficient light resources provided by the reduced coverage of the native species. Conversely, nitrogen enrichment can effectively inhibit P. kansuensis invasion by increasing the photocompetitive advantage of the native species. sP. kansuensis invasion did not reduce species richness, but did increase plant community coverage, productivity and soil nutrients. Furthermore, the removal of P. kansuensis had little effect on the plant community structure and soil properties. Our results suggest that the passenger model perfectly explains the benign invasive mechanism of P. kansuensis. The invasion "ticket" of P. kansuensis is a spare ecological niche for light resources released by overgrazing.

Study of Distribution and Seasonal Variation of Exotic Plant Species in Downstream Tamagawa Riparian Areas Using A Mobile Application and Citizen Science

Exotic plant species are highly fertile in riparian areas and are biologically invasive. In recent years, there has been an increasing need to understand the effect of invasive exotic plant species on the water cycle and biodiversity. It is important for citizens to understand the ecological disturbances caused by invasive exotic plant species, so that they can cooperate and contribute in restoration ecology and conservation biology. However, at present, there are few opportunities for citizens and younger generations to understand the invasive exotic plant species distributed in riparian areas. Since 2017, we have developed and conducted a citizen science program based on information and communication technology (smart phone, mobile application, and operations dashboard for ArcGIS) in the riparian areas of the downstream Tamagawa River and Nogawa River in the Tokyo metropolitan area. Two specific invasive alien species, five alien species under consideration because of ecological disturbance, and three naturalized species were found distributed in the study area, with some annual and seasonal variation. We believe that wide-area and continued citizen science programs can be developed and practiced with the use of mobile applications. The utilization of citizen science data will contribute to the restoration and conservation of aquatic environment and biodiversity.

Nitrogen addition, but not pulse frequency, shifts competitive interactions in favor of exotic invasive plant species

Nitrogen addition, but not pulse frequency, shifts competitive interactions in favor of exotic invasive plant species

INVASIVE EXOTIC PLANT SPECIES AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE ENVIRONMENT, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES, ECONOMY AND HEALTH: A SEARCH

Invasive exotic plant species (IEPS) is recognized as threat to the native biodiversity and leads to the loss of habitat for the indigenous species on the earth. Invasions not only tear down the native plant species but have adverse impacts on economy and human health. Many documented records from Western countries connected with alien species revealed altered ecosystem services and socio-economic conditions via diverse mode of actions. Even though, the ecological impacts of alien species were documented, there is a dearth of analysis regarding their economic quantification, livelihood considerations, biotechnological aspects and human health risk assessments are the need of the hour. The noxious exotic invasive plants in India were Ageratum conyzoides, Eupatorium adenophorum, Parthenium hysterophorus, Lantana camara, Mikania micrantha, Argemone mexicana and Eichhornia crassipes. In this context, an attempt was made to enlist the alien species of Kerala and a review to account the impacts of invasive exotic plant species on various aspects of the environment globally. Results regarding the alien species search revealed the following species such as Chromolaena odorata, Senna spectabilis, Hypoestes sanguinolenta, Maesopsis eminii, Eupatorium cannabinum, Mikania micrantha, Sphagneticola trilobata and Acacia mearnsii were intruded in to various ecosystems of Kerala after the repeated floods. They directly affect the germination and survival of local species, damage the quality of soil and affect ground water availability. Nearly 80 species were noted as alien species in Kerala by many state level surveys. Research in the direction of impact of alien species on socio-economic cultural aspects of life and derailment of ecosystem is not yet seriously carried from Kerala. Further, there is a paucity of the ecological models/indicators to establish interrelationship among global environmental changes, biodiversity and health, warranting future researches.

Editorial: Trait-Based Plant Community Assembly, Ecological Restoration, and the Biocontrol of Invasive Exotic Plant Species

Editorial: Trait-Based Plant Community Assembly, Ecological Restoration, and the Biocontrol of Invasive Exotic Plant Species

Distinct soil microbial communities under Ageratina adenophora invasions.

Ageratina adenophora is one of the most hazardous invasive weeds in China. It can form a single species community quickly and cause extensive ecological harm. The belowground microbial community can participate in nutrient transformation in soil and plays an important role in the invasiveness of exotic plant species. We selected sampling sites with different invasion levels of A. adenophora. The soil property and soil biogeochemical activity were measured in both bulk and rhizosphere soil under the aggressive weed A. adenophora and under adjacent native plants. The composition of bacterial communities was investigated using high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing. We found that the rhizosphere habitat selectively accumulated Sphingomonas and Steroidobacter and reduced the abundance of Gaiella and Gp6 regardless of plant host. The presence of A. adenophora caused a switch in microbial composition from Aeromicrobium and Marmoricola to Reyranella and Bradyrhizobium in the bulk soil, and from Gp4, Pirellula, Lysobacter and Aridibacterrae to Reyranella and Streptomyces in the rhizosphere soil. We also revealed specific microbes that closely related with N-cycling processes. In addition, soil pH was the main factor affecting microbial communities in both bulk and rhizosphere soil. Our study confirmed that the rhizosphere environment imposed homogenous microbial communities. The invasion of A. adenophora selected specialized bacterial communities in soils and specific microbes that potentially mediated soil nutrition cycling. Our findings provide ecological explanation to explain how the underground microbes help A. adenophora invasive.

Review of Existing Knowledge and Practices of Tarping for the Control of Invasive Knotweeds.

Managing invasive exotic plant species is a complex challenge, especially for Asian knotweeds (Reynoutria spp.). Tarping is a regularly cited but poorly documented control method, which consists of covering the ground with a tarp (agricultural tarp, geotextile, geomembrane, etc.) to create a physical barrier to hinder plant growth and deprive the plants of light in order to deplete their rhizomatous reserves. To improve our knowledge of tarping in order to identify the key factors of its success or failure, we reviewed the relevant grey and scientific literature and conducted an international survey among managers to collect feedback on tarping experiments. In the literature, as well as in the field, practices are quite heterogeneous, and the method’s effectiveness is highly contrasted. A better consideration of knotweed biology may improve the efficacy of the method. Based on the bibliography and survey work, we propose practical recommendations including covering the entire stand, extending the tarping up to 2.5 m beyond its edges for a period of at least six years, and ensuring regular monitoring. Even though tarping does not seem to be a one-size-fits-all solution to eradicate knotweed, it could still be a useful control method once knotweed has become a critical management issue.

Ecosystem functions in degraded riparian forests of southeastern Kenya.

Species community structures shape ecosystem functions, which are mostly stronger pronounced in intact than in degraded environments. Riparian forests in semiarid Africa provide important habitats for endangered plant and animal species and provide various ecosystem functions, that is, services to people settling along these streams. Most of these riparian forests are severely disturbed by human activities and dominated by invasive exotic plant species in the meanwhile. Thus, ecosystem functions are negatively influenced. While most studies have analyzed a specific metric to measure the degree of ecosystem function, little is known about how strongly different ecosystem functions respond to anthropogenic disturbances in parallel. In this study, we analyzed a set of four proxies of ecosystem functions, ground‐dwelling arthropod abundances, pollination, seed dispersal, and predation, along a highly disturbed riparian forest in southeastern Kenya. We assessed the land cover and land use manually and with an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. Our data show that ecosystem functions respond differently to vegetation cover, human disturbances, and the availability of the invasive exotic shrub Lantana camara. The occurrence of representatives from the groups Saltatoria and Formicidae profits from heterogeneous habitat structures and natural riparian forest, while representatives of the Araneae profit from high proportion of agricultural fields. In general, predation is higher in mixed land use and natural riparian forest, while pollination and seed dispersal showed no significant trend in regard on land coverage. Along with this, predation also increased with rising proportion of natural riparian forest, while the proportion of agricultural land negatively affects predation, but in parallel showed a slightly significant positive trend with seed dispersal. Human disturbances and the occurrence of the invasive exotic L. camara shrub did not significantly affect our metrics of ecosystem functioning, except of the negative impact of human disturbances on pollinators. In conclusion, our results underpin that ecosystem functions respond highly variable and individually to environmental changes.

A Trait-Based Protocol for the Biological Control of Invasive Exotic Plant Species

Selecting appropriate native species for the biological control of invasive exotic plants is a recurring challenge for conservationists, ecologists, and land managers. Recently developed trait-based approaches may be an effective means of overcoming this challenge. However, we lack a protocol and software platform that can be used to quickly and effectively select potential native plant species for performing biological control of the invasive exotic plant species. Here, our study introduces a protocol and a software program that can be used for trait-based selection of appropriate native plant species for performing biocontrol of invasive exotic plant species. In particular, we illustrate the effectiveness of this software program and protocol by identifying native species that can be used for the biological control of Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit, a highly invasive plant species found in many parts of the world. Bougainvillea spectabilis was the only native species selected by our software program as a potential biocontrol agent for L. leucocephala. When separately planting 4 seedlings of B. spectabilis and two unselected species (Bombax ceiba, and Ficus microcarpa) as neighbors of each individual of L. leucocephala for 3 years, we found that B. spectabilis, which was functionally similar to the invasive L. leucocephala, significantly limited the invasion of the latter, while the unselected native plant species could not. That was because all the seedling of B. spectabilis survived, while half seedlings of unselected species (B. ceiba and F. microcarpa) died, during the experimental period when planted with L. leucocephala seedlings. Moreover, the growth of L. leucocephala was restricted when planted with B. spectabilis, in contrast B. ceiba and F. microcarpa did not influence the growth of L. leucocephala. Overall, our software program and protocol can quickly and efficiently select native plant species for use in the biological control of invasive exotic plant species. We expect that this work will provide a general protocol to perform biological control of many different types of invasive exotic plant species.

Alien plant species on roadsides of the northwestern Patagonian steppe (Argentina).

The introduction of alien species represents one of the greatest threats to biodiversity worldwide. Highway construction increases the dispersal and invasion of exotic plant species. This study examined the assembly process of the plant communities to determine whether the roadsides of the Patagonian steppe represent a reservoir and dispersal source of invasive exotic species. We analyzed the composition of exotic and native species and functional groups present in the established vegetation and seed banks of roadsides and reference areas nearby. The type of dispersal of exotic and native species at the roadsides was also evaluated. Total cover and that of exotic and native species was lower at the roadsides than in the reference areas; however, at the roadsides the cover and seed abundance of exotic species was higher than that of native species. In the roadsides vegetation, native shrubs such as Acaena splendens predominated, along with exotic perennial herbs and grasses which were mainly represented by Rumex acetosella. In the seed bank the predominant species were exotic perennial herbs, also represented by R. acetosella, annual exotic species such as Epilobium brachycarpum and Verbascum thapsus, and annual native species such as Heliotropium paronychioides. No exotic shrubs were found either at the roadsides or in the reference areas. The species at the roadsides did not present a dominant type of dispersal. The abundance of exotic species at the roadsides, both in the aboveground vegetation and the seed bank, may be due to the stressful environment and the characteristics of the species themselves, such as the ability to form seed banks. This work revealed that the roadsides of the Patagonian steppe constitute reservoirs of invasive exotic species, highlighting the importance of identifying them and controlling their spread, with a view to generating ecosystem management programs.

Do vegetal communities dominated by invasive exotic plant species affect the structure of bird communities in an Atlantic Forest area?

Do vegetal communities dominated by invasive exotic plant species affect the structure of bird communities in an Atlantic Forest area?

Interactive disturbances drive community composition, heterogeneity, and the niches of invasive exotic plant species during secondary succession

ABSTRACT Background Simultaneous disturbances during secondary succession can cause plant community shifts, facilitating exotic species invasions. However, it remains unclear if exotic invasion is facilitated by additive or interactive disturbance effects during succession. Aims Our aim was to investigate temporal shifts in plant species composition, invasive exotics, and indicator species during simultaneous disturbances in secondary succession. Methods We used species data from nine plant surveys over 22 years of a field experiment in an old field where parallel strips were randomly assigned to each of the 9 crossed fertiliser and mowing disturbance treatments. Multivariate and ordination analyses were used to quantify community response to disturbance. Indicator species analysis identified plants characteristic of different disturbance levels. Results Plant communities differed in composition and heterogeneity based on interactive effects of disturbance treatments whereas pairwise tests showed these differences occurred in over two-thirds of treatment combinations. Of the 44 indicator plant species, seven of the eight exotic species of concern for Illinois were indicator species and characterised particular disturbance treatments and surveys. Conclusions Changes in these successional plant communities depend on the interaction among disturbances, which can facilitate exotic plant invasions, leading to plant communities which disproportionately maintain invasive exotic plants as compared to other naturalised exotic and native plant species.

Can an exotic tree (Jackfruit, Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) influence the non-volant small mammals assemblage in a protected area of Atlantic Forest?

AbstractJackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) is an exotic invasive plant species in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest that causes changes in the environment through the release of allelopathic substances and has high fruit production. We aimed to understand the potential effects of the jackfruit on the non-volant small mammal assemblage in an area protected by law, in the municipality of Cariacica – Espírito Santo, south-eastern Brazil. We sampled the small mammals assemblage using live traps in 18 sites, eight with jackfruit and 10 without. We ordinated the assemblage and tested possible differences in species richness and abundance according to the jackfruit density. We recorded 31 species of non-volant small mammals, with 13 species endemic to the Atlantic Forest. Jackfruit species can affect both positively and negatively the studied assemblage of non-volant small mammals. For species with a frugivory habit, jackfruit has a positive effect favouring these species. On the other hand, for insectivorous species, jackfruit represents an impact inhibiting the presence of these species in an area with high jackfruit density. The results presented are the first step in understanding the effect of this invasive species on a small mammals assemblage and initiating a monitoring of these species in areas affected by jackfruits. Furthermore, management of jackfruits in this protected area is required.

Controlling invasive plant species in ecological restoration: A global review

Abstract Invasive plant species can hinder the establishment and growth of native plants and impact several ecosystem properties, such as soil cover, nutrient cycling, fire regimes and hydrology. Controlling invasive plants is then a necessary, yet usually expensive, step towards the restoration of an ecosystem. A synthesis of literature is needed to understand variation in invasive plants' impacts and their practical control in restoration contexts, and to identify associated knowledge gaps. We reviewed 372 articles published from 2000 to 2019 covering the control of undesirable plants (both exotic invasive and overabundant native plant species) in ecological restoration to gather information on the main plants being controlled and methods used, and considering the distribution of studies among biomes and countries grouped according to the Human Development Index (HDI). Grasses and forbs were the most‐studied invasive plant species in restoration sites, but invasive trees were well studied in the tropics. Poaceae and Asteraceae were the most studied families of invasive plants. Non‐chemical interventions (mostly mowing and prescribed fire) were used in more than half of the reviewed studies globally, but chemical methods (mainly glyphosate spraying, used in 40% of projects using herbicides) are also common. The reviewed studies were mostly performed in countries with very high HDI. Countries with low and medium HDI used only non‐chemical methods. Synthesis and applications. Decisions about which control method to use depend heavily on the invasive plant species' growth forms, the local economic situation where the restoration sites are located and resources available for control. More developed countries tend to use more chemical control, whereas less developed ones use mainly non‐chemical methods. Since most of the reviewed studies were performed in countries with very high HDI, we lack information from developing countries, which concentrates global hotspots for biodiversity conservation and global commitments of forest and landscape restoration.