Exofacial Protein Research Articles

A Stepwise Approach for the Isolation and the Identification of Chemically Reactive Exofacial Protein Thiols.

The plasma membrane controls the selective internalization of (macro)molecules through different mechanisms, often relaying on specialized outward-facing carriers such as exofacial proteins thiols (EPTs). Although the interchange of critical thiols and disulphides between EPTs and exogenous cargoes is the first critical event, the identification of specific cell interactors remains to be thoroughly explored. Besides, it is likewise evident that only the relatively little suite of EPTs truly reactive can be considered theranostic targets. We were aimed at developing a stepwise procedure for the isolation and identification of a subset of EPTs, that we named chemically reactive EPS, which are potential theranostic targets. In the present study, EPTs that displayed permissive sulfhydryls on the surface of live cells in vitro underwent i) chemo-selective capture by means of thiolated superparamagnetic microbeads (isolation step), followed by ii) their prompt release via disulphide breakage through the addition of DTT reducing agent (elution step) and iii) analysis by means of SDS-PAGE and LCMS/ MS (identification step). In total cell lysates, most of the proteins recovered were intracellular. Conversely, this methodology allowed a 2.6-fold enrichment in chemically reactive EPTs recovered and identified, corresponding up to 37% of the total cellular proteins. The key element of our approach was the reversible chemo-selective capture through disulphide linkages between chemically reactive EPTs and free thiols on microbeads. We devised an enabling methodology to selectively pick up, recover and characterize chemically reactive EPTs.

Biscysteine-Bearing Peptide Probes To Reveal Extracellular Thiol-Disulfide Exchange Reactions Promoting Cellular Uptake.

In recent years, delivery systems based on the incorporation of thiols/disulfides have been extensively explored to promote the intracellular delivery of biological cargoes. However, it remains unclear about the detailed processes of thiol-disulfide exchanges taking place on the cell surface and how the exchange reactions promote the cellular uptake of cargoes bearing thiols or disulfide bonds. In this work, we report the rational design of biscysteine motif-containing peptide probes with substantially different ring-closing property and how these peptide probes were employed to explore the thiol-disulfide exchanges on the cell surface. Our results show that extensive thiol-disulfide exchanges between peptides and exofacial protein thiols/disulfides are involved in the cellular uptake of these peptide probes, and importantly glutathione (GSH) exported from the cytosols participates extensively in the exchange reactions. Cysteine-glycine-cysteine (CGC)-containing peptide probes can be more efficiently taken up by cells compared to other probes, and we suggested that the driving force for the superior cellular uptake arises from very likely the unique propensity of the CGC motif in forming doubly bridged disulfide bonds with exofacial proteins. Our probe-based strategy provides firsthand information on the detailed processes of the exchange reactions, which would be of great benefit to the development of delivery systems based on the extracellular thiol-disulfide exchanges for intracellular delivery of biologics.

Thioether-Bonded Fluorescent Probes for Deciphering Thiol-Mediated Exchange Reactions on the Cell Surface.

Study on the processes of the thiol-mediated disulfide exchange reactions on the cell surface is not only important to our understanding of extracellular natural bioreduction processes but to the development of novel strategies for the intracellular delivery of synthetic bioactive molecules. However, disulfide-bonded probes have their intrinsic inferiority in exploring the detailed exchange pathway because of the bidirectional reactivity of disulfide bonds toward reactive thiols. In this work, we developed thioether-bonded fluorescent probes that enable us to explore thiol-mediated thioether (and disulfide) exchange reactions on the cell surface through fluorescence recovery and/or cell imaging. We demonstrated that our thioether-bonded probes can be efficiently cleaved through thiol-thioether exchanges with exofacial protein thiols and/or glutathione (GSH) efflux. The exchanges mainly take place on the cell surface, and GSH efflux-mediated exchange reactions can take place without the requirement of pre-exchanges of the probes with cell surface-associated protein thiols. On the basis of our founder methodology, for the first time we demonstrated the interplay of exofacial protein thiols and GSH efflux on the cleavage of external thioether-bonded compounds. Moreover, given that an understanding of the process of GSH efflux and the mechanism on which it relies is crucial to our understanding of the cellular redox homeostasis and the mechanism of multidrug resistance, we expect that our thioether-bonded probes and strategies would greatly benefit the fundamental study of GSH efflux in living cells.

Abstract 2068: RRx-001 oxidation of redox sensitive protein thiols in tumors measured by Gd-LC7-SH enhanced MRI In preclinical tumor models

Abstract RRx-001 is a member of the novel dinitroazetidine class of anticancer agents that profoundly perturbs the thiol redox potential of cancer cells while inducing damaging ROS/RNS. A Phase 1 study investigating the safety and tolerability of RRx-001 has been completed and Phase 2 studies are ongoing. Pre-clinical studies indicate that RRx-001 selectively alkylates glutathione and a specific thiol on hemoglobin, resulting in a pro-oxidant effect in tumors. We have previously reported the development of thiol-containing DOTA-based chelates of gadolinium as redox-sensitive MRI contrast agents. In the present preclinical MRI study we investigated the pharmacodynamics and mechanism of action of RRx-001 using the novel thiol-bearing contrast agent Gd-LC7-SH. SCID mice were inoculated in the flank with either CHP-100, HT-29, or PANC-1 cells. Mice were imaged on a 7 Tesla Bruker Biospec® small animal MRI scanner when tumors had grown to 250-400 mm3 in size. Mice were anesthetized using isoflurane and cannulated at the tail vein for injections using a zero dead volume i.v. line for administration of Gd-LC7-SH or RRx-001. Longitudinal relaxation time (T1) maps of the tumor were acquired pre-contrast and at various times post-contrast to 60 min post-injection of 0.05 mmol/kg Gd-LC7-SH. Mice were imaged before treatment and at 1h, 24 h and 72 h post-treatment with 10 mg/kg RRx-001. Gd-LC7-SH spontaneously binds to thiol targets following i.v. administration. The fraction of gadolinium that is bound to macromolecular targets such as plasma albumin and exofacial protein thiols (EPTs) is protected from renal clearance, and produces a prolonged decrease in tumor T1 on MRI. We have quantified this decrease in tumor T1 by the parameter -T1, calculated as pre-contrast tumor T1 minus tumor T1 at 40-60 min post Gd-LC7-SH. The larger the magnitude of -T1, the greater is the retention of Gd-LC7-SH in the tumor. In all 3 tumor types, the tumor -T1 at 1 h post-drug was significantly smaller than pre-drug tumor -T1 (p<0.02). In the HT-29 and PANC-1 tumors the -T1 at 72 h post-drug remained smaller than baseline -T1 (p<0.05). These observations indicate decreased tumor retention of Gd-LC7-SH following treatment with RRx-001, which is consistent with a decrease in availability of reduced albumin and EPTs in the tumor. The previously reported redox activity of RRx-001 together with its very short half-life in vivo suggests an indirect effect on albumin and exofacial thiols that manifests as smaller -T1 values on Gd-LC7-SH MRI imaging. The anti-proliferative activity of RRx-001 may not only be due to glutathione depletion and NO release under hypoxia, but also to an increase in intratumoral ROS burden leading to a direct redox modulation of exofacial thiols integral to tumor protein function. Additional studies are planned to confirm this postulate. Citation Format: Natarajan Raghunand, Jan Scicinski, Bryan Oronsky, Gerald Guntle, Elizabeth Bruckheimer, Ron Korn. RRx-001 oxidation of redox sensitive protein thiols in tumors measured by Gd-LC7-SH enhanced MRI In preclinical tumor models. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 105th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2014 Apr 5-9; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2014;74(19 Suppl):Abstract nr 2068. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2014-2068

S-nitrosation of monocarboxylate transporter 1: Inhibition of pyruvate-fueled respiration and proliferation of breast cancer cells

Energy substrates metabolized through mitochondria (e.g., pyruvate, glutamine) are required for biosynthesis of macromolecules in proliferating cells. Because several mitochondrial proteins are known to be targets of S-nitrosation, we determined whether bioenergetics are modulated by S-nitrosation and defined the subsequent effects on proliferation. The nitrosating agent S-nitroso-l-cysteine (L-CysNO) was used to initiate intracellular S-nitrosation, and treatment decreased mitochondrial function and inhibited proliferation of MCF7 mammary adenocarcinoma cells. Surprisingly, the d-isomer of CysNO (D-CysNO), which is not transported into cells, also caused mitochondrial dysfunction and limited proliferation. Both L- and D-CysNO also inhibited cellular pyruvate uptake and caused S-nitrosation of thiol groups on monocarboxylate transporter 1, a proton-linked pyruvate transporter. These data demonstrate the importance of mitochondrial metabolism in proliferative responses in breast cancer and highlight a novel role for inhibition of metabolic substrate uptake through S-nitrosation of exofacial protein thiols in cellular responses to nitrosative stress.

The yin of exofacial protein sulfhydryls and the yang of intracellular glutathione in in vitro transfection with SS14 bioreducible lipoplexes

Although redox-sensitive transfectants have been considered hitherto as the Holy Grail of gene delivery because of their ability to restrict the release of nucleic acids to intracellular compartments, the reasons for their sometimes lackluster performance do not seem likewise clear. To ascertain the possible influence of extracellular soluble thiols, exofacial protein sulfhydryls (EPTs) and glutathione (GSH) on the overall efficacy of bioreducible lipoplexes, we utilized a cationic gemini surfactant – SS14 – in which the two single-chain amphiphiles are held together by a suitable redox-sensitive linkage. We herein draw a big picture whereby the interaction of bioreducible lipoplexes with cells and their internalization are tightly coupled events that ultimately do affect transfection. Specifically, we provide evidence that EPTs entail the reduction-triggered disruption of SS14 lipoplexes in plain Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM), thereby resulting in a considerable waste (ca. 30%) of nucleic acids and low transgene expression. The DNA release from bioreducible lipoplexes can be blunted to ca. 16% by transfecting cells in complete medium and fully reverted by preincubating them for 1h before delivery in the same culture supernatant (i.e. preconditioning), thus significantly increasing transfection by ca. 3-fold and 10-fold, respectively. These results lead to the proposal of the protein corona as the central mediator in shielding SS14 bioreducible lipoplexes from the action of EPTs in the early phase of delivery and provide a smart solution as to how to increase their efficacy. Besides, we pinpoint associations between intracellular GSH levels and the extent of transfection. All these issues were unique to bioreducible lipoplexes.

In Vivo Labeling of B16 Melanoma Tumor Xenograft with a Thiol-Reactive Gadolinium Based MRI Contrast Agent

Murine melanoma B16 cells display on the extracellular side of the plasma membrane a large number of reactive protein thiols (exofacial protein thiols, EPTs). These EPTs can be chemically labeled with Gd-DO3A-PDP, a Gd(III)-based MRI contrast agent bearing a 2-pyridinedithio chemical function for the recognition of EPTs. Uptake of gadolinium up to 10(9) Gd atoms per cell can be achieved. The treatment of B16 cells ex vivo with a reducing agent such as tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine (TCEP) results in an increase by 850% of available EPTs and an increase by 45% of Gd uptake. Blocking EPTs with N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) caused a decrease by 84% of available EPTs and a decrease by 55% of Gd uptake. The amount of Gd taken up by B16 cells is therefore dependent upon the availability of EPTs, whose actual level in turn changes according to the extracellular redox microenvironment. Then Gd-DO3A-PDP has been assessed for the labeling of tumor cells in vivo on B16.F10 melanoma tumor-bearing mice. Gd-DO3A-PDP (or Gd-DO3A as the control) has been injected directly into the tumor region at a dose level of 0.1 μmol and the signal enhancement in MR images followed over time. The washout kinetics of Gd-DO3A-PDP from tumor is very slow if compared to that of control Gd-DO3A, and 48 h post injection, the gadolinium-enhancement is still clearly visible. Therefore, B16 cells can be labeled ex vivo as well as in vivo according to a common EPTs-dependent route, provided that high levels of the thiol reactive probe can be delivered to the tumor.

Exofacial Protein Thiols as a Route for the Internalization of Gd(III)-Based Complexes for Magnetic Resonance Imaging Cell Labeling

Four novel MRI Gd(III)-based probes have been synthesized and evaluated for their labeling properties on cultured cell lines K562, C6, and B16. The labeling strategy relies upon the fact that cells display a large number of reactive exofacial protein thiols (EPTs) that can be exploited as anchorage points for suitably activated MRI probes. The probes are composed of a Gd(III) chelate (based on either DO3A or DTPA) connected through a flexible linker to the 2-pyridyldithio chemical function for binding to EPTs. GdDO3A-based chelates could efficiently label cells (up to a level of 1.2 x 10(10) Gd(III) atoms/cell), whereas GdDTPA-based chelates showed poor or no cell labeling ability at all. Among the GdDO3A based compounds, that having the longest spacer (compound GdL1A) showed the best labeling efficacy. The mechanism of EPT mediated cell labeling by GdL1A involves probe internalization without sequestration of the Gd(III) chelate within subcellular structures such as endosomes.

Oxidation of Cell Surface Thiol Groups by Contact Sensitizers Triggers the Maturation of Dendritic Cells

p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) has a crucial role in the maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) by sensitizers. Recently, it has been reported that the oxidation of cell surface thiols by an exogenous impermeant thiol oxidizer can phosphorylate p38 MAPK. In this study, we examined whether sensitizers oxidize cell surface thiols of monocyte-derived DCs (MoDCs). When cell surface thiols were quantified by flow cytometry using Alexa fluor maleimide, all the sensitizers that we examined decreased cell surface thiols on MoDCs. To examine the effects of decreased cell surface thiols by sensitizers on DC maturation, we analyzed the effects of an impermeant thiol oxidizer, o-phenanthroline copper complex (CuPhen). The treatment of MoDCs with CuPhen decreased cell surface thiols, phosphorylated p38 MAPK, and induced MoDC maturation, that is, the augmentation of CD83, CD86, HLA-DR, and IL-8 mRNA, as well as the downregulation of aquaporin-3 mRNA. The augmentation of CD86 was significantly suppressed when MoDCs were pretreated with N-acetyl-L-cystein or treated with SB203580. Finally, we showed that epicutaneous application of 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene on mouse skin significantly decreased cell surface thiols of Langerhans cells in vivo. These data suggest that the oxidation of cell surface thiols has some role in triggering DC maturation by sensitizers.

Modulation of Cell Surface Protein Free Thiols: A Potential Novel Mechanism of Action of the Sesquiterpene Lactone Parthenolide

BackgroundThere has been much interest in targeting intracellular redox pathways as a therapeutic approach for cancer. Given recent data to suggest that the redox status of extracellular protein thiol groups (i.e. exofacial thiols) effects cell behavior, we hypothesized that redox active anti-cancer agents would modulate exofacial protein thiols.Methodology/Principal FindingsTo test this hypothesis, we used the sesquiterpene lactone parthenolide, a known anti-cancer agent. Using flow cytometry, and western blotting to label free thiols with Alexa Fluor 633 C5 maleimide dye and N-(biotinoyl)-N-(iodoacetyl) ethylendiamine (BIAM), respectively, we show that parthenolide decreases the level of free exofacial thiols on Granta mantle lymphoma cells. In addition, we used immuno-precipitation techniques to identify the central redox regulator thioredoxin, as one of the surface protein thiol targets modified by parthenolide. To examine the functional role of parthenolide induced surface protein thiol modification, we pretreated Granta cells with cell impermeable glutathione (GSH), prior to exposure to parthenolide, and showed that GSH pretreatment; (a) inhibited the interaction of parthenolide with exofacial thiols; (b) inhibited parthenolide mediated activation of JNK and inhibition of NFκB, two well established mechanisms of parthenolide activity and; (c) blocked the cytotoxic activity of parthenolide. That GSH had no effect on the parthenolide induced generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species supports the fact that GSH had no effect on intracellular redox. Together these data support the likelihood that GSH inhibits the effect of parthenolide on JNK, NFκB and cell death through its direct inhibition of parthenolide's modulation of exofacial thiols.Conclusions/SignificanceBased on these data, we postulate that one component of parthenolide's anti-lymphoma activity derives from its ability to modify the redox state of critical exofacial thiols. Further, we propose that cancer cell exofacial thiols may be important and novel targets for therapy.

Extracellular redox modulation by regulatory T cells

We demonstrate that the mechanism of redox remodeling during mouse T cell activation involves secretion of glutathione by dendritic cells and its subsequent cleavage to cysteine. Extracellular cysteine accumulation results in a lower redox potential, which is conducive to proliferation, and changes the net redox status of exofacial protein domains. Regulatory T cells inhibit this redox metabolite-signaling pathway, which represents a previously unrecognized mechanism for immunosuppression of effector T cells.

Targeting exofacial protein thiols with GdIII complexes. An efficient procedure for MRI cell labelling

Cells display on the outer surface of the plasma membrane a large number of protein thiols that can be reversibly labelled with suitably designed Gd(III)-based contrast agents for cell tracking by MRI.

Regulation of redox-sensitive exofacial protein thiols in CHO cells

Thiols affect a variety of cell functions, an effect known as redox regulation, largely attributed to modification of transcription factors and intracellular signaling mechanisms. Since exofacial protein thiols are more exposed to redox-acting molecules used in cell culture and may represent sensors of the redox state of the environment, we investigated their susceptibility to redox regulation. Exofacial protein thiols were measured using cell-impermeable Ellman's reagent [5,5'-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid), DTNB]. For quantification, we also set up an ELISA assay based on the cell-impermeable biotinylated SH reagent, N-(biotinoyl)-N-(iodoacetyl) ethylendiamine (BIAM). Exposure of CHO cells to H(2)O(2) induces oxidation of surface thiols at concentrations not affecting intracellular GSH. Depletion (50%) of GSH decreases surface thiols by 88%. Surface thiols are also highly sensitive to thiol antioxidants, since exposure to 5 mM N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) for 2 h augmented their expression without increasing GSH levels. Using BIAM labeling and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, we show that this increase in surface thiols is due to the reduction of specific membrane proteins. Peptide mass fingerprinting by MALDI mass spectrometry allowed us to identify two of these proteins as Erp57 and vimentin.

Glycosaminoglycans and Protein Disulfide Isomerase-Mediated Reduction of HIV Env

Conformational changes within the human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) surface glycoprotein gp120 result from binding to the lymphocyte surface receptors and trigger gp41-mediated virus/cell membrane fusion. The triggering of fusion requires cleavage of two of the nine disulfide bonds of gp120 by a cell-surface protein disulfide-isomerase (PDI). Soluble glycosaminoglycans such as heparin and heparan sulfate bind gp120 via V3 and, possibly, a CD4-induced domain. They exert anti-HIV activity by interfering with the HIV envelope glycoprotein (Env)/cell-surface interaction. Env also binds cell-surface glycosaminoglycans. Here, using surface plasmon resonance, we observed an inverse relationship between heparin binding by gp120 and its thiol content. In vitro, and in conditions in which gp120 could bind CD4, heparin and heparan sulfate reduced PDI-mediated gp120 reduction by approximately 80%. Interaction of Env with the surface of lymphocytes treated using sodium chlorate, an inhibitor of glycosaminoglycan synthesis, led to gp120 reduction. We conclude that besides their capacity to block Env/cell interaction, soluble glycosaminoglycans can effect anti-HIV activity via interference with PDI-mediated gp120 reduction. In contrast, their presence at the cell surface is dispensable for Env reduction during the course of interaction with the lymphocyte surface. This work suggests that the reduction of exofacial proteins in various diseases can be inhibited by compounds targeting the substrates (not by targeting PDI, as is usually done), and that glycosaminoglycans that primarily protect proteins by preserving them from proteolysis also have a role in preventing reduction.

The catalytic activity of protein disulfide isomerase is involved in human immunodeficiency virus envelope-mediated membrane fusion after CD4 cell binding.

Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) is a multifunctional protein with thiol-disulfide redox-isomerase activities. It catalyzes thiol-disulfide interchange reactions on the cell surface that may cause structural modifications of exofacial proteins. PDI inhibitors alter human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) spread, and it has been suggested that PDI may be necessary to trigger HIV entry. This study examined this hypothesis by using cell-to-cell fusion assays, in which the HIV envelope (Env) expressed on the cell surface interacts with CD4(+) lymphocytes. PDI is clustered at the lymphocyte surface in the vicinity of CD4-enriched regions, but both antigens essentially do not colocalize. Anti-PDI antibodies and 2 inhibitors of its catalytic function altered Env-mediated membrane fusion at a post-CD4 cell binding step. The fact that the PDI catalytic activity present on lymphocytes is required for fusion supports the hypothesis that catalysts assist post-CD4 cell binding conformational changes within Env.

Redox Control of Exofacial Protein Thiols/Disulfides by Protein Disulfide Isomerase

Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) facilitates proper folding and disulfide bonding of nascent proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum and is secreted by cells and associates with the cell surface. We examined the consequence of over- or underexpression of PDI in HT1080 fibrosarcoma cells for the redox state of cell-surface protein thiols/disulfides. Overexpression of PDI resulted in 3.6-4. 2-fold enhanced secretion of PDI and 1.5-1.7-fold increase in surface-bound PDI. Antisense-mediated underexpression of PDI caused 38-53% decreased secretion and 10-33% decrease in surface-bound PDI. Using 5,5'-dithio-bis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) to measure surface protein thiols, a 41-50% increase in surface thiols was observed in PDI-overexpressing cells, whereas a 29-33% decrease was observed in underexpressing cells. Surface thiol content was strongly correlated with cellular (r = 0.998) and secreted (r = 0.969) PDI levels. The pattern of exofacial protein thiols was examined by labeling with the membrane-impermeable thiol reactive compound, 3-(N-maleimidylpropionyl)biocytin. Fourteen identifiable proteins on HT1080 cells were labeled with 3-(N-maleimidylpropionyl)biocytin. The intensity of labeling of 11 proteins was increased with overexpression of PDI, whereas the intensity of labeling of 3 of the 11 proteins was clearly decreased with underexpression of PDI. These findings indicated that secreted PDI was controlling the redox state of existing exofacial protein thiols or reactive disulfide bonds.

Interaction of a permeant maleimide derivative of cysteine with the erythrocyte glucose carrier. Differential labelling of an exofacial carrier thiol group and its role in the transport mechanism

S-(Bismaleimidomethyl ether)cysteine (Cys-Mal) was synthesized as a probe for reactive thiol groups on the erythrocyte glucose carrier. Although Cys-Mal entered cells, its reaction with intracellular GSH prevented alkylation of endofacial membrane proteins, limiting its effect to the cell surface at concentrations below 5 mM. Cys-Mal irreversibly inhibited hexose transport half-maximally at 1.5 mM by decreasing the maximal rate of transport, with no effect on the affinity of substrate for the carrier. Reaction occurred with the outward-facing form of the carrier, but did not affect the ability of the carrier to change orientation. In intact cells, several exofacial proteins were labelled by [35S]Cys-Mal, including the band-4.5 glucose carrier, the labelling of which occurred on a single site sensitive to transport inhibitors. The reactive exofacial group was a thiol group, since both transport inhibition and band-4.5 labelling by Cys-Mal were abolished by the thiol-specific and impermeant compound 5,5'-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid). Selectivity for carrier labelling in cells was increased by a double differential procedure, which in turn allowed localization of the exofacial thiol group to the Mr 18,000-20,000 membrane-bound tryptic carrier fragment. In protein-depleted ghosts the exofacial thiol group was preferentially labelled at low concentrations of [35S]Cys-Mal, whereas with the reagent at 10 mM the Mr 26,000-45,000 tryptic carrier fragment was also labelled. Cys-Mal should be useful in the study of carrier thiol-group location and function.