Exertion Of Cognitive Control Research Articles

The Effects of Mental Fatigue on Anaerobic Power and Power Endurance Performance.

Mental fatigue has been studied extensively in relation to its impact on aerobic-, strength-, and motor-based tasks, but anaerobic power-based tasks have received limited attention. Interdisciplinary research investigating the underlying mechanisms by which mental fatigue influences physical performance has been called for. In two studies, the effects of mental fatigue on maximal power jump and endurance jump performance as well as kinetics and kinematics during jump performance were examined. Samples of collegiate volleyball players (Study 1; N = 14) and recreationally active students (Study 2; N = 27) completed two 30 min experimental manipulations (high vs. low cognitive control exertion) before performing three maximal power squat jumps followed by 15 repeated countermovement jumps, with measurements of kinetics and kinematics. For Study 1, the maximal power performance was significantly lower under a mentally fatigued condition, but no differences were observed for repeated jump performance, which may have been attributable to alterations in jump mechanics. For Study 2, no between-condition differences were observed for the maximal power performance, although repeated jump performance was significantly lower under a mentally fatigued condition. Collectively, these findings suggest that the impacts of mental fatigue on power-based performance tasks may depend on the task demands as well as the training status of the individual.

Disinhibited or Disconnected? Dietary Restraint Attenuates the Relationship Between Heart Rate Variability and Stress-Induced Suppression of Food Intake

Abstract: Literature on restrained eaters posits that the capacity to successfully diet is cognitively demanding, requiring exertion of cognitive control over one’s eating behaviour. Demands that deplete this limited inner resource can thus lead restrained eaters to become disinhibited and consume large amounts of food. Although self-regulation is inferred to play a role, it has not yet been studied in combination with its physiological correlates. As low heart rate variability (HRV) is associated with lower self-regulatory capacity, and acute mental stressors decrease HRV, it was hypothesized that reduced HRV during stress may mediate the relationship between stress and food intake, and that the mediation may be moderated by dietary restraint. Specifically, the moderation hypothesis predicted more restrained eaters would exhibit a stronger relationship between low HRV and intake. Female undergraduates ( n = 92) were randomized to a stress or control condition while HRV was recorded. Participants subsequently engaged in a bogus taste test to quantify post-stress consumption. Restraint was conceptualized using Hagan and colleagues’ (2017) latent restraint factors. A significant moderated mediation emerged for Weight-Focused Restraint, ab3 = .196, SE = .077, 95% CI [.060, .361] and Calorie Counting, ab3 = .062, SE = .023, 95% CI [.024, .115]. However, contrary to expectation, stress-induced HRV reduction was associated with decreased intake for those low in restraint, whereas intake was unrelated to HRV for individuals with higher dietary restraint. Further, there was no evidence of traditionally-defined disinhibition in more restrained eaters. Results suggest those with higher restraint show a relative disconnection from internal physiological cues shown to affect intake under stress in less restrained individuals.

Electrophysiological markers of fatigue due to daylong exertion of cognitive control

Electrophysiological markers of fatigue due to daylong exertion of cognitive control

Influences of cognitive control on number processing: New evidence from switching between two numerical tasks.

A growing body of research suggests that basic numerical abilities such as number magnitude and number parity processing are influenced by cognitive control. So far, however, evidence for number processing being influenced by cognitive control came primarily from observed adaptations to stimulus set characteristics (e.g., ratio or order of specific stimulus types) and switches between a numerical and non-numerical task. Complementing this previous research, the present study employed a task switching paradigm exclusively involving numerical tasks (i.e., magnitude comparisons and parity judgements) to examine how cognitive control processes influence number processing. Participants were presented with a single-digit number and had to either judge its parity or compare its magnitude with a standard of 5, depending on a preceding cue. Based on previous results, we expected the numerical distance effect and the spatial-numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect to be modulated in switch trials requiring the exertion of cognitive control. Partly in line with our expectations, the numerical distance effect was reduced in switch trials. However, no modulation of the SNARC effect was observed. The results pattern suggests that number processing is influenced by cognitive control, depending on task requirements and the type of numerical information (i.e., numerical magnitude vs spatial association of numbers) that is processed. To reconcile the present and previous results, we propose an information prioritisation account, suggesting that cognitive control primarily influences the processing of the information type that requires the most explicit processing.

The unseen, the seen, and the spoken: Latent and overt priming in cyclic picture naming.

Language production entails selecting words in the face of internally, and sometimes externally, driven competition that influences the long-term accessibility of both selected words and competitors. Because both endogenous and externally presented competitors usually result in semantic interference, it is often assumed that they engage the same underlying processes. We question this assumption. Specifically, we propose that latent primes may more naturally commingle with endogenous lexical activation whereas overt primes elicit strong control processes. Two experiments examined the effects of latent (masked) and overt (picture-word) priming in combination with cyclic picture naming of small sets of taxonomically or thematically related or unrelated pictures. A subsequent continuous picture naming phase was designed to assess enduring effects of service as a prime or target. Only taxonomic relations showed substantial interference in cyclic naming. Latent priming tended to increase interference for taxonomic relations, but it produced facilitation for thematic relations. In contrast, overt priming induced interference for both types of relation, indicating exertion of cognitive control. In the continuous picture naming phases, accessibility was hindered for previously presented latent primes (Experiment 1) but enhanced for previously overt primes (Experiment 2). Surprisingly, interference in cyclic naming did not carry forward to the continuous phase. These findings suggest that masked priming may be a viable intervention in the internal dynamics of lexical selection. In contrast, they also add to the body of evidence questioning the validity of using picture-word procedures to study inherent semantic interference.

Temporal dynamics of conflict adaptation across different conflict strengths.

Conflict adaptation is considered to reflect the adjustment of cognitive control, and it is critical for adaptive behavior. Despite intensive investigations on conflict adaptation, straightforward evidence on how changes in conflict strength influence the behavioral and neural dynamics of conflict adaptation remains scarce. To address this issue, we manipulated conflict strength by varying distractor-target congruency to investigate whether conflict strength per se or the expectancy of conflict strength triggers the adjustment of cognitive control. Behavioral and electroencephalographic (EEG) measures were recorded while participants performed a variant four-choice flanker task without feature repetitions. The behavioral results showed that reaction times increased with increasing conflict strength. Importantly, there were conflict adaptations between the congruent and incongruent-low, congruent and incongruent-high, and incongruent-low and incongruent-high conditions. Consistent with the behavioral results, the EEG results revealed that N2 and P3 were sensitive to conflict strength. Critically, there were typical conflict adaptations between every two conflict conditions on the early P3 amplitude related to the adjustment of attentional strategies. However, there were no differences among these conflict adaptation effects, both on reaction times and the early P3 amplitude, demonstrating that the expectancy of conflict strength rather than conflict strength per se may play a crucial role in conflict adaptation. Altogether, these results emphasize the functional role of expectancy based on previous conflict strength in the exertion of cognitive control, which is in accordance with the repetition expectation theory than with the conflict monitoring theory.

A neuro-metabolic account of why daylong cognitive work alters the control of economic decisions

Behavioral activities that require control over automatic routines typically feel effortful and result in cognitive fatigue. Beyond subjective report, cognitive fatigue has been conceived as an inflated cost of cognitive control, objectified by more impulsive decisions. However, the origins of such control cost inflation with cognitive work are heavily debated. Here, we suggest a neuro-metabolic account: the cost would relate to the necessity of recycling potentially toxic substances accumulated during cognitive control exertion. We validated this account using magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) to monitor brain metabolites throughout an approximate workday, during which two groups of participants performed either high-demand or low-demand cognitive control tasks, interleaved with economic decisions. Choice-related fatigue markers were only present in the high-demand group, with a reduction of pupil dilation during decision-making and a preference shift toward short-delay and little-effort options (a low-cost bias captured using computational modeling). At the end of the day, high-demand cognitive work resulted in higher glutamate concentration and glutamate/glutamine diffusion in a cognitive control brain region (lateral prefrontal cortex [lPFC]), relative to low-demand cognitive work and to a reference brain region (primary visual cortex [V1]). Taken together with previous fMRI data, these results support a neuro-metabolic model in which glutamate accumulation triggers a regulation mechanism that makes lPFC activation more costly, explaining why cognitive control is harder to mobilize after a strenuous workday.

Present bias in economic choice demonstrates increased cognitive fatigability of glioma patients

Fatigue is a frequent symptom in many clinical conditions that is still poorly understood despite having a major impact on quality of life. Here, we propose a novel approach using model-based analysis of choice behaviour to extract fatigue markers. We applied this approach to the case of low-grade glioma, with the aim of testing the hypothesis that fatigability in this condition may manifest as limited control over choice impulsivity.Patients with intact or resected glioma (n = 29) and matched healthy controls (n = 27) performed a series of behavioural tasks included in a 4 h-long neuropsychological assessment. Intertemporal choices, opposing smaller-sooner to larger-later monetary rewards, were intermixed with tasks designed to test cognitive and motor performance and to assess perceived fatigue with subjective ratings. All dependent variables were analysed with generalised linear models testing the main effects of group and time-on-task, as well as their interaction.While absent in standard measures of fatigue (subjective rating and objective performance), a significant group-by-time interaction was observed in the rate of impulsive choices: contrary to controls, patients developed a preference for the smaller-sooner option in the course of neuropsychological assessment. This preference shift was captured by computational modelling as an increase in the present bias, a parameter that assigns an additive bonus to immediate rewards.Thus, choice impulsivity was the only reliable marker that reflected the enhanced fatigability of patients relative to controls. These results suggest that the impact of glioma (or its resection) on brain functioning limits the exertion of cognitive control during decision-making. More generally, they pave the way to using model-based analysis of choice behaviour for future investigations of the many clinical conditions plagued with cognitive fatigue.

Captivated by thought: “Sticky” thinking leaves traces of perceptual decoupling in task-evoked pupil size

Throughout the day, we may sometimes catch ourselves in patterns of thought that we experience as rigid and difficult to disengage from. Such "sticky" thinking can be highly disruptive to ongoing tasks, and when it turns into rumination constitutes a vulnerability for mental disorders such as depression and anxiety. The main goal of the present study was to explore the stickiness dimension of thought, by investigating how stickiness is reflected in task performance and pupil size. To measure spontaneous thought processes, we asked participants to perform a sustained attention to response task (SART), in which we embedded the participant's concerns to potentially increase the probability of observing sticky thinking. The results indicated that sticky thinking was most frequently experienced when participants were disengaged from the task. Such episodes of sticky thought could be discriminated from neutral and non-sticky thought by an increase in errors on infrequent no-go trials. Furthermore, we found that sticky thought was associated with smaller pupil responses during correct responding. These results demonstrate that participants can report on the stickiness of their thought, and that stickiness can be investigated using pupillometry. In addition, the results suggest that sticky thought may limit attention and exertion of cognitive control to the task.

Cognitive control in number processing: new evidence from task switching

Recently, it was demonstrated that even basic numerical cognition such as the processing of number magnitude is under cognitive control. However, evidence so far primarily came from adaptation effects to stimulus characteristics (e.g., relative frequency of specific stimulus categories). Expanding this approach, we evaluated a possible influence of more active exertion of cognitive control on basic number processing in task switching. Participants had to perform a magnitude comparison task while we manipulated the order of compatible and incompatible input–output modalities (i.e., auditory/vocal input–visual/manual output vs. auditory/visual input–manual/vocal output, respectively) on the trial level, differentiating repeat vs. switch trials. Results indicated that the numerical distance effect but not the problem size effect was increased after a switch in input–output modality compatibility. In sum, these findings substantiate that basic number processing is under cognitive control by providing first evidence that it is influenced by the active exertion of cognitive control as required in task switching.

Induced affective states do not modulate effort avoidance.

Recent research reveals that when faced with alternative lines of action, humans tend to choose the less cognitively demanding one, suggesting that cognitive control is intrinsically registered as costly. This idea is further supported by studies showing that the exertion of cognitive control evokes negative affective states. Despite extensive evidence for mood-induced modulations on control abilities, the impact of affective states on the avoidance of cognitive demand is still unknown. Across two well-powered experiments, we tested the hypothesis that negative affective states would increase the avoidance of cognitively demanding tasks. Contrary to our expectations, induced affective states did not modulate the avoidance of demand, despite having an effect on task performance and subjective experience. Altogether, our results indicate that there are limits to the effect of affective signals on cognitive control and that such interaction might depend on specific affective and control settings.

It's more than just conflict: The functional role of congruency in the sequential control adaptation

According to the conflict monitoring theory (CMT), one of the most prominent theories of cognitive control, the exertion of cognitive control is triggered by the detection of conflicting response tendencies in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Recent research has challenged this emphasis of response conflicts and has debated whether in addition to shielding after incongruent trials the relaxation after congruent trials also contributes to the sequential adaptation of control. To investigate the functionality of facilitative congruent trials in sequential adaptation of control, we conducted two experiments using a visual (Experiment 1) and an auditory (Experiment 2, preregistered) Simon task with stimuli presented laterally to the left or right (creating response congruent and incongruent trials) or without any particular spatial information (creating neutral trials). Both experiments showed converging results: in the error and reaction time data, the Simon effect was smaller following incongruent trials, larger following congruent trials, and the Simon effect following neutral trials was in-between. Results thus suggest that sequential control adaptations can originate from two processes: Increased shielding in response to incongruent trials and relaxation in response to congruent trials. Argumentations for a functional role of congruent and incongruent trials in the sequential adaptation of control suggest a more general theory of fluency monitoring instead of mere conflict monitoring. In addition, such extensions of the CMT provide theoretical explanations of how control is ever relaxed in response conflict tasks after being enhanced by conflict in the first place. Last but not least, the results may also be taken as a further hint that congruent stimuli may provide a positive affective signal for control relaxation just it has already been shown for incongruent stimuli as aversive signals for the up-regulation of control (shielding).

Dealing with distractors in the spatial cueing paradigm can reflect the strategic influence of cognitive effort minimization rather than a limit to selective attention

ABSTRACTObservers often forego using highly-valid spatial cues to guide attention when they can locate the target more easily without the cue. This evidence suggests that effortful cognitive control processes – specifically, spatial reference frame computations that underlie the comprehension of directional words – are invoked sparingly in symbolic spatial cueing tasks. The present study examined the extent to which observers would adopt a default strategy of full or only partial spatial word cue comprehension to exploit the percentage of trials in which disambiguation of opposing stimuli along the cued axis was mandatory in order to respond. The main results revealed that observers routinely processed directional information when it was frequently needed (on 95% of trials), while selectively processing directional information when it was seldom needed (on 5% of trials), presumably to exploit the extreme context manipulation and minimize the amount of cognitive demand incurred. Hence, target-distractor relationships can be harnessed to mediate cognitive control exertion.

Heart rate biofeedback attenuates effects of mental fatigue on exercise performance

ObjectiveCognitive control exertion increases mental fatigue and impairs subsequent physical performance. Few studies have investigated intervention strategies to attenuate the effects of mental fatigue on exercise behavior. This study examined heart rate (HR) biofeedback as a moderator of the effects of mental fatigue on vigorous-intensity exercise performance. DesignWithin-subjects, crossover design. MethodsParticipants (N = 36) completed four 20-min sessions of self-paced, cycling exercise. Exercise was preceded by 10-min high or low cognitive control manipulations crossed with HR biofeedback or no feedback during exercise in a 2 (high vs. low cognitive control) X 2 (biofeedback vs. no feedback) factorial arrangement. Participants rated their intended rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and goal commitment prior to and following the cognitive control manipulations. HR and total work were recorded during each exercise session. ResultsMental fatigue was significantly greater following high cognitive control exertion, which corresponded with significant reductions in intended RPE and goal commitment. Participants exercised at a lower average HR and performed less work in the high cognitive control/no feedback condition, however, with HR biofeedback following high cognitive control exertion participants attained similar HRs and total work performed to the low cognitive control conditions, which did not differ. ConclusionsHR biofeedback improves self-regulation of exercise behavior in a mentally fatigued state. Without biofeedback, fatigued people may down-regulate exercise intensity. Findings have implications for the use of HR-monitoring devices to improve intensity-based exercise prescription adherence when confronted with barriers such as mental fatigue.

Effects of Cognitive Control Exertion and Motor Coordination on Task Self-Efficacy and Muscular Endurance Performance in Children.

Emerging research shows a strong connection between brain areas governing cognition and motor behavior. Indeed, research based on the Strength Model has shown that people perform worse on physical tasks following the exertion of high (compared to low) cognitive control which has been attributed to the dysregulation of neurophysiological processes within areas of the brain responsible for cognition. Yet, research investigating the negative aftereffects of high cognitive control (HCC) exertion on task performance has not considered the potential role of areas governing motor behavior. The present study investigated the effects of HCC exertion on task self-efficacy and exercise performance in children. A secondary purpose was to investigate whether motor coordination influences the change in exercise performance differently following low versus HCC exertion. Participants (N = 70) performed two isometric handgrip endurance trials separated by a Stroop task, which was either congruent low cognitive control (LCC) or incongruent (HCC). Motor coordination was assessed prior to the first endurance trial. Task self-efficacy for performing the second endurance trial was assessed following the Stroop task. Participants in the HCC condition reported lower task self-efficacy and showed a reduction in endurance exercise performance. Task self-efficacy mediated the cognitive control—performance relationship. Participants scoring lower on motor coordination showed the greatest declines in exercise performance following HCC, whereas motor coordination did not affect performance following LCC. The results of this study provide evidence that task self-efficacy and exercise performance are also negatively affected in children following HCC, and interestingly, these effects are exacerbated among those scoring lower in motor coordination. We recommend future research investigate motor coordination as a potential mechanism for the reductions in both cognitive and physical task performance following the prolonged exertion of HCC.

Effects of Mental Fatigue on Exercise Intentions and Behavior

Exerting cognitive control results in mental fatigue, which is associated with impaired performance during physical endurance tasks. However, there has been little research on the effects of mental fatigue on people's perceptions or behaviors involving lifestyle or recreational exercise. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of mental fatigue on intended physical exertion and exercise performance reflective of current physical activity guidelines. Using a counterbalanced design, participants completed two 50-min experimental manipulations (high vs. low cognitive control exertion) before exercising at a self-selected intensity for 30 min. At visit 1, participants performed a graded exercise task to gain familiarity with a range of exercise intensities and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) while exercising. At visits 2 and 3, participants rated their intended RPE for the exercise session, performed the experimental manipulations, re-rated their intended RPE, and then completed 30-min of exercise on a cycle ergometer. Total work performed while exercising was recorded for each session. Compared with the low cognitive control condition, the high cognitive control manipulation resulted in significantly greater mental fatigue (d = .73), significantly greater reductions in intended RPE (mean difference = -0.62), and significantly less total work (-12.7 kJ) performed during the exercise session. Mental fatigue alters the amount of physical effort people are willing to invest in an exercise workout and follow through with those intentions by doing less work. These are the first results showing people may deliberately adjust their physical effort to cope with mental fatigue.

Effects of Mental Fatigue on Physical Endurance Performance and Muscle Activation Are Attenuated by Monetary Incentives.

Physical performance is impaired following cognitive control exertion. Incentives can ameliorate adverse carryover effects of cognitive control exertion but have not been investigated for physical endurance. This study examined the effect of monetary incentives on physical performance and muscle activation following exposure to a mentally fatiguing, cognitive control task. Participants (N = 82) performed two isometric endurance handgrip trials separated by a 12-min cognitive control manipulation using a 2 (high cognitive control [HCC]/low cognitive control [LCC]) × 2 (incentive/no incentive) design. Mental fatigue was significantly higher in the HCC conditions. Performance decreased in the HCC/no incentive condition but was unaffected in the HCC/incentive condition, which did not differ from the low cognitive control conditions. Electromyography data revealed increased muscle activation in the HCC/no incentive condition, which was also attenuated in the HCC/incentive condition. Findings show that incentives counteract the negative effects of HCC on physical endurance and alter central drive to motor units.

Graded increases in cognitive control exertion reveal a threshold effect on subsequent physical performance.

Graded increases in cognitive control exertion reveal a threshold effect on subsequent physical performance.

Cognitive control exertion leads to reductions in peak power output and as well as increased perceived exertion on a graded exercise test to exhaustion

ABSTRACTWe investigated effects of a brief (10.5 min) cognitively demanding task on graded exercise test performance. Untrained, university students (N = 15) completed two graded exercise tests in counterbalanced, randomised order. One test was preceded by restful viewing of a documentary video (control); the other by a stop-signal task. Cardiorespiratory functions and perceived exertion were monitored during exercise. Peak power output (W) was lower following the stop-signal task (M = 240.03, SD = 53.37) compared to control (M = 246.03, SD = 52.60), P = 0.002, ηP2 = 0.493, as was (P = 0.042, Cohen’s d = 0.55). Perceived exertion was significantly higher at 50% (d = 0.77) and 75% (d = 0.83) of iso-time following the cognitive task (Ps ≤ 0.01). Results are consistent with research showing negative carryover effects of cognitively demanding tasks on whole-body endurance performance. Results also support the psychobiological model of exercise as performance of the cognitive task did not affect perceived exertion when exercise task demands were lower, but lead to greater perceived exertion and earlier withdrawal of effort at higher levels of exercise task demand. Findings have implications for understanding psychological determinants of exercise performance and conditions that may lead to underestimation of .

Adjustments of response speed and accuracy to unconscious cues

Controlling response parameters like the speed and accuracy of responses allows us to adjust our behavior according to particular situational task demands. We investigated whether exertion of cognitive control over speed–accuracy settings is not exclusively based on conscious representations, but can also be elicited by stimuli that are not consciously represented. Participants were instructed to point and click on a target, with a cue signaling before each response whether to prioritize accuracy of the response over speed, or vice versa. In half of the trials, the cue was masked to prevent a conscious representation of the cue. With visible cues, response patterns showed typical speed–accuracy tradeoffs, with faster and less accurate responses after speed cues, and slower but more accurate responses after accuracy cues. Crucially, this was found with masked cues as well. Our results are in line with recent findings on the relation of consciousness and cognitive control processes like task-set activation and response inhibition: masked cues are able to impact on cognitive control processes.