Executive Functions Of Inhibition Research Articles

Sadness and fear, but not happiness, motivate inhibitory behaviour: the influence of discrete emotions on the executive function of inhibition

ABSTRACT Inhibition, an executive function, is critical for achieving goals that require suppressing unwanted behaviours, thoughts, or distractions. One hypothesis of the emotion and goal compatibility theory is that emotions of sadness and fear enhance inhibitory control. Across Experiments 1–4, we tested this hypothesis by inducing a happy, sad, fearful, and neutral emotional state prior to completing an inhibition task that indexed a specific facet of inhibition (oculomotor, resisting interference, behavioural, and cognitive). In Experiment 4, we included an anger induction to examine whether valence or motivational-orientation best-predicted performance. We found support that fear and sadness enhanced inhibition except when inhibition required resisting interference. We argue that sadness and fear enhance inhibitory control aiding the detection and analysis of problems (i.e. sadness) or threats (i.e. fear) within one’s environment. In sum, this work highlights the importance of identifying how negative emotions can be beneficial for and interact with specific executive functions influencing down-stream processing including attention, cognition, and memory.

Influence of individual differences in executive functions of WM on the continued influence effect of misinformation

ABSTRACT Misinformation often affects people’s cognition and judgment even when they are aware of a retraction; this is known as the continued influence effect of misinformation (CIE). The aim of the present study was to verify if there were differences in the continued influence effect with respect to the individual’s EF availability of WM (i.e. inhibition, shifting and updating). The Stroop task, number shifting task and the n-back task were adopted to investigate the three executive functions of inhibition, shifting and updating, respectively. The results showed that differences in inhibition, but not in shifting and updating, had a significant negative effect on the CIE. The continued effect of misinformation was lower for individuals with high function of inhibition. The current study showed that high-inhibition individuals were less affected by the misinformation. The study extends our understanding of the relationship between executive functions and the CIE.

Abstract 10087: Cognitive Evaluation During Pregnancy Among Women With Preeclampsia: A Pilot Feasibility Study

Introduction: Previous research has shown cognitive decline related to preeclampsia (preE) in women after pregnancy when using neurocognitive assessments; however, it is not known if changes in cognition occur antenatally (e.g., in the third trimester of pregnancy). This pilot study investigated if the cerebrovascular effect of preE can manifest as cognitive decline antenatally. Hypothesis: Pregnant preE women will score lower on cognitive tests in the executive and memory function domains compared with pregnant normotensive women. Methods: This was a prospective observational study in a single institution. We included women more than 28 weeks of gestation with preE or normotension. We excluded women with chronic hypertension, neurologic and developmental disabilities, and current substance use. Neurocognitive test battery included subjective (Everyday Cognition) and objective assessment of executive function (Stroop test, Trail Making), attention and working memory (Digit Span Subtest), and information processing speed (Digit Symbol Substitution) evaluated as z-scores. Baseline characteristics (e.g. pre-pregnancy Body mass index [BMI]) characteristics were collected. Results: We enrolled 1 to 2 women weekly over 4 months. Thirty pregnant women were included (16 preE; 14 normotensive). Those with preE had higher pre-pregnancy BMI, delivered at earlier gestational age and reported higher history of migraines. PreE vs. normotensive women had more memory complaints (p<0.001) and scored lower on objective measures of information processing speed, attention, and the executive function of inhibition ( Table ). Conclusions: Assessment of cognition in pregnant preE and normotensive women is feasible. PreE women reported worse subjective memory, and had lower scores in attention, information processing speed, and the executive function. Future work to determine if these cognitive differences persist postpartum is warranted.

Mechanisms Underlying Cognitive Effects of Inducing a Mindful State.

Mindfulness is understood as a state or practice of guiding attention to the present moment without judgment. While some studies on mindfulness-based interventions demonstrate beneficial effects on cognitive functions (e.g. Chiesa et al., 2011; Yakobi et al., 2021) it still appears challenging to identify underlying mechanisms due to the wide range of research designs and dependent measures used, as well as the frequent absence of active control conditions. Relatedly, processes underlying the effects of short inductions of a mindful state may be unspecific to mindfulness and attainable through other means, such as relaxation (Fell et al., 2010).Therefore, the current study compared the effects of a brief mindfulness induction with a relaxation induction (via progressive muscle relaxation; active control condition) and listening to podcasts (passive control condition) in a pre-post experimental design. 78 participants without recent meditation experience were randomly assigned to the experimental conditions (mindfulness = 25; progressive muscle relaxation = 24; podcast listening = 30) and received corresponding instructions for a total of 40 minutes (2 × 20 minutes) a maximum of 3 days apart. Executive functions of inhibition, updating and switching as well as attentional networks were assessed with the continuous performance task, n-back task, number-letter task, and attention network task, respectively.While updating and executive attention similarly benefited from meditation and relaxation compared to podcast listening, inhibition and shifting measures indicate differential effects of mindfulness induction. Alerting and orienting were not affected by any induction. Implications for mechanisms underlying the effects of mindfulness are discussed.

On gender and stroop effect. The REM-ACT study: Acceptance and commitment therapy versus a mindfulness-based emotional regulation intervention in anxiety disorders. A randomized controlled trial

IntroductionResults about the effects of mindfulness training on the executive function of inhibition are mixed. Research about interventions in anxiety disorders is needed to exam the differential efficacy among men and women, and the factors involved in those potential gender differences.ObjectivesTo compare the effectiveness of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) versus a Mindfulness-based Emotional Regulation (MER) intervention on inhibitory control according to gender.Methods This study was carried out in a Mental Health Unit in Spain (Colmenar Viejo, Madrid). Firstly, 80 adult patients with anxiety disorders were randomized according to the score on the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II (blocking factor), of whom, 64 patients decided to participate (mean age = 40.66, S.D. = 11.43; 40 females). Each intervention was weekly, during 8 weeks, guided by two Clinical Psychology residents. A 2x2x2 mixed ANOVA (pre-post change x intervention type x gender) was conducted, with Sidak-correction post-hoc tests. The dependent variable was the Interference score of the Stroop test.Results Normality and homoscedasticity assumptions were met. No statistically significant differences were observed on age or gender between interventions. A statistically significant interaction effect was observed between pre-post change x intervention x gender on Interference [F(1, 52) = 5.004, p = .030; statistical power observed = 59.3%]. Improvement in interference was larger for women after ACT (p = .000) and for men after MER (p = .002).ConclusionsThese preliminary results show improvements in inhibition after the two interventions examined. However, each treatment maximizes improvement in different ways according to gender. Further research is required.DisclosureNo significant relationships.

No State Effects of Brief Mindfulness Meditation on the Executive Functions of Inhibition, Shifting, and Updating

No State Effects of Brief Mindfulness Meditation on the Executive Functions of Inhibition, Shifting, and Updating

Revealing the dynamics of prospective memory processes in children with eye movements

Prospective memory (PM), the memory for delayed intentions, develops during childhood. The current study examined PM processes, such as monitoring, PM cue identification and intention retrieval with particular focus on their temporal dynamics and interrelations during successful and unsuccessful PM performance. We analysed eye movements of 6–7 and 9–10 year olds during the inspection of movie stills while they completed one of three different tasks: scene viewing followed by a snippet allocation task, a PM task and a visual search task. We also tested children's executive functions of inhibition, flexibility and working memory. We found that older children outperformed younger children in all tasks but neither age group showed variations in monitoring behaviour during the course of the PM task. In fact, neither age group monitored. According to our data, initial processes necessary for PM success take place during the first fixation on the PM cue. In PM hit trials we found prolonged fixations after the first fixation on the PM cue, and older children showed a greater efficiency in PM processes following this first PM cue fixation. Regarding executive functions, only working memory had a significant effect on children's PM performance. Across both age groups children with better working memory scores needed less time to react to the PM cue. Our data support the notion that children rely on spontaneous processes to notice the PM cue, followed by a resource intensive search for the intended action.

Children’s Memory for Temporal Information: The Roles of Temporal Language and Executive Function

The ability to recall the temporal order of events develops much more slowly than the ability to recall facts about events. To explore what processes facilitate memory for temporal information, we tested 3- to 6-year-old children (N = 40) for immediate memory of the temporal order of events from a storybook, using a visual timeline task and a yes/no recognition task. In addition, children completed tasks assessing their understanding of before and after and the executive functions of inhibition using the Day/Night Stroop task and cognitive shifting using the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) task. Older children (Mage = 69.25 months) outperformed younger children (Mage = 52.35 months) on all measures; however, the only significant predictor of memory for the temporal ordering of events was cognitive shifting. The findings suggest that the difficulty in memory for temporal information is related to development of a general cognitive ability, as indexed by the DCCS, rather than specific temporal abilities.

Shifting Gear in the Study of the Bilingual Advantage: Language Switching Examined as a Possible Moderator.

The bilingual advantage is a heavily debated topic in research on bilingualism. The current study further investigated one specific aspect of bilingualism proposed to be a determining factor for the bilingual advantage, namely language switching behaviour. We investigated whether a bilingual advantage can be detected in the executive functions of inhibition and shifting by comparing monolingual and bilingual participants on a Simon task and a colour–shape switching task. Furthermore, we examined the relation between these executive functions and language switching proficiency, as measured by a semantic verbal fluency task. In addition, the current study set out to investigate the convergence of self-reported language switching estimates and actual language switching proficiency. Results revealed a bilingual advantage for shifting, but not for inhibition. However, this bilingual advantage for shifting was not related to language switching behaviour. Additionally, we were unable to identify a relation between objective and subjective measures of switching abilities. These findings seem to confirm the existence of a bilingual advantage, but also once again validate its elusiveness, as demonstrated by the absence of bilingual benefits on our measure of inhibition. It furthermore questions the validity of switching measures employed in previous studies.

Temperament, executive function, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adolescents: The mediating role of effortful control

ABSTRACTIntroduction: Temperament dimensions may be related to executive functions (EF) and may be involved in the expression and maintenance of symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The current study aimed to assess whether effortful control (EC) mediates the relationship between EF and inattentive symptoms, and whether surgency (S) and negative affectivity (NA) mediate the relationships between EF and hyperactive–impulsive ADHD symptoms in adolescents.Method: Working individually, participants aged between 12 and 16 years (N = 118; 75 with ADHD) performed tests of cognitive EF (working memory, planning, flexibility, and inhibition), and parents and teachers completed a multi-informant assessment focusing on measures of ADHD symptoms and temperament dimensions (EC, S, and NA).Results: There were significant differences between ADHD and control participants in EF and temperament dimensions. ADHD participants had lower scores than controls in working memory, planning, and inhibition EF; they also had lower scores in EC and higher scores in S and NA. Structural equation modeling indicated differential associations between EC, S, and NA temperament dimensions, and working memory, planning and inhibition EF, and ADHD symptoms. Mediation analysis suggested that EF exerted indirect effects on the inattentive and hyperactive–impulsive symptoms, via EC; higher EF abilities were related to higher levels of EC, which in turn were related to lower scores of inattentive and hyperactive–impulsive ADHD symptoms. S and NA did not mediate relations among EF and hyperactive–impulsive symptoms.Conclusion: The findings expand on those of previous studies of the complex relationship between temperament dimensions and EF and confirm the differential association between impairments in some EF, low EC, and the expression of inattentive and hyperactive–impulsive symptoms in adolescents, which may account for the ADHD–control group differences.

The contributions of executive functions to mathematical learning difficulties and mathematical talent during adolescence.

Are mathematical learning difficulties caused by impairment of the abilities that underlie mathematical talent? Or are mathematical difficulties and talent qualitatively different? The main goal of this study was to determine whether mathematical learning difficulties are explained by the same executive functions as mathematical talent. We screened a pool of 2,682 first-year high school students and selected 48 for evaluation, dividing them into three groups: those with mathematical learning difficulties (n = 16), those with typical performance (n = 16), and those with mathematical talent (n = 16). Adolescents from the learning difficulties and talented groups had age, reading skills, and verbal and non-verbal intelligence that were similar to those of the typical performance group. Participants were administered a suite of tasks to evaluate verbal and visual short-term memory and executive functions of inhibition, shifting, and updating. Different executive functions showed different contributions at the two ends of the math ability continuum: lower levels of performance in updating visual information were related to mathematical learning difficulties, while greater shifting abilities were related to mathematical talent. Effect sizes for the differences in performance between groups were large (Hedges' g > 0.8). These results suggest that different executive functions are associated with mathematical learning difficulties and mathematical talent. We discuss how these differences in executive functions could be related to the different types of mathematical abilities that distinguish the three groups.

Funcionamiento ejecutivo y rendimiento matemático: Un estudio longitudinal.

El objetivo del presente estudio longitudinal consistió en examinar el poder predictivo de las funciones ejecutivas de inhibición y memoria de trabajo (MT) evaluadas en Educación Infantil (T1) sobre los aspectos formales e informales del rendimiento matemático en 2º de Educación Primaria (T2). La muestra inicial estuvo conformada por 209 preescolares de 5 a 6 años, de los que un 86.12 % de los sujetos volvieron a ser evaluados en el T2 (7-8 años). En el T1, se administraron seis tareas neuropsicológicas relacionadas con las funciones ejecutivas de inhibición y MT verbal y viso-espacial. En el T2, se aplicó la batería TEMA-3 (Gingsburg y Baroody, 2003) para evaluar diferentes aspectos relacionados con el rendimiento matemático. Los resultados mostraron que 5 de las 6 tareas aplicadas en Educación Infantil son capaces de predecir el rendimiento matemático posterior, con un especial peso de la MT verbal. Se comentan las implicaciones de estos hallazgos para la investigación y la práctica psicoeducativa.

Selected Attentional Bias in Different Level of Trait Anxiety

Anxiety is one of the most common mental disorders and has attracted attention of more and more researchers. A number of behavioral studies suggest that attentional bias towards threat among anxious populations is a relatively robust phenomenon. The attentional biases are observed not only across different experimental tasks but also across different anxiety disorders. However, studies of the neural mechanisms of this phenomenon are currently rare and inconsistent. It was found that compared to low trait anxiety(LTA), high trait anxiety(HTA) evoked different P2 between angry and neutral faces, with a larger P2 to the angry face in some studies. In contrast, others found that threatening stimuli elicited a larger P2 in both groups. Similarly,inconsistent findings also exited for the P1. In addition, the N1 effect on the attentional bias to fearful imageswith a complex context is still unclear. Therefore, the present study aimed at investigating the electrophysiological markers of attention bias for fearful images with a complex context in anxiety.Participants were selected out of a pool of 70 undergraduate students. The participants were screend on the basis of their response to Spielberger's Trait Anxiety Inventory. Those with scores in the top quartile of the distribution(n=17, 6 males and 11 females) were assigned to the HTA group, and those in the bottom quartile of the distribution(n=17, 10males and 7 females) were assigned to the LTA group. All participants were right-handed, and had normal or corrected normal vision. ERPs were recorded when subjects viewed 30 fear and30 neutral pictures which were presented twice. ERP data from five midline electrode sites was selected for further statistical analysis: Fz, FCz, Cz, CPz, and Pz. We measured mean amplitudes in four windows following stimulus onset: 120~140 ms(N1), 230~250 ms(N2), 300~500 ms(P3), and 500~1000 ms(Slow wave, SW).Anxiety group(HTA vs. LTA) ×picture type(fearful vs. neutral) ×electrode sites(Fz, FCz, and Cz) analysis of variance(ANOVA) was conducted on the amplitude of N1, N2, P3, and SW. For all analyses, the significance level was set at 0.05. Post-hoc testing of significant main effects was conducted using BONFERRONI method.Significant interactions were analyzed using simple-effect models.Results showed that the HTA group exhibited a enhanced N1 in comparison to the LTA group, F(2, 64) =19.28, p 0.01. And the interactions of the three factors was significant, F(1, 32) = 11.94, p0.01. The interactions between picture and group was significant [Cz: F(1, 32) = 6.93, p0.05, FCz: F(1, 32) = 5.22,p0.05]; compared to LTA, HTA elicited different N1 amplitude between fearful and neutral images, with enhanced N1 to the fearful images. LTA elicited enhanced N2 compared with HTA, F(1, 32) = 4.83, p 0.05. A significant relation between N2 and the trait score was found by using the stepwise regression analysis, F=6.97,p0.05, R2=0.18.These results indicate that the HTA group allocated more attention resource to fearful images at the early emotional process stage(120~140 ms), whereas LTA group began to distinguish fearful from neutral at the later stage(230~250 ms). The executive function of inhibition might decrease with HTA, These results provide new evident to support the cognition-motivation model.

Cognitive function in first episode major depressive disorder: Poor inhibition and semantic fluency performance

Introduction.Executive Functions (EF) has been documented to be impaired in patients with recurrent Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) in several studies. Longitudinal studies have suggested that these impairments may be a result of several episodes of depression or they may represent stable traits in this patient group. However, few studies have addressed these issues and investigated cognitive functioning with a particular focus on EF in patients who experience MDD for the first time.Methods.In the present study, the executive functions of inhibition, verbal fluency, mental flexibility, and planning and problem solving were investigated in a group of patients diagnosed with first episode MDD. Thirty patients and 30 control subjects were included in the study.Results.The patient group performed significantly more poorly in the cognitive functions of inhibition and semantic fluency. In addition, the patient group showed a reduced speed of mental processing on some of the measures. However, the results showed that reduced processing speed alone could not account for the poor performance in inhibition and semantic fluency. There were no differences between the two groups in the other measures of EF, indicating that functioning of mental flexibility, phonemic fluency, planning, and problem solving was intact in the patient group.Conclusions.The results show that impaired inhibition and semantic fluency are present early in the course of MDD. The present findings indicate that poor inhibition and performance in semantic fluency may represent stable traits in MDD, independent of symptom severity and the number of depressive episodes.

Effect of Cues Associated With an Alcoholic Beverage on Executive Function

To investigate whether alcohol-associated drink cues can elicit conditioned compensatory responses that counter alcohol's effects on cognition. A between-subjects design was used in which participants were randomly assigned to one of three drink groups: an alcohol-associated drink (lager based) or one of two drinks not usually associated with alcohol (a fruit squash-flavored drink or an apple schnapps-flavored drink; n = 15 per group). The amount of alcohol in each was the same: 0.65 g/kg body weight for men and 0.57 g/kg for women. Executive functions of inhibition, updating of working memory, and attentional set shifting were measured using the CANTABeclipse computerized test battery before and after alcohol consumption. Self-reported mood was measured, and participants provided ratings of the drinks' sensory and hedonic properties. Participants in the lager drink group showed less disinhibitory responding in an affective go/nogo task and less of a reduction in alertness than participants in the two other groups. The lager group was also faster to respond in the set-shifting task than the group given the "squash" (nonassociated) drink. There were no significant differences between the groups in how they evaluated the drinks' sensory/hedonic properties. These data provide provisional evidence to suggest that cues previously associated with alcohol in lager drinkers (particularly the taste and smell of lager) can elicit compensatory responses that counter alcohol's cognitive effects and its effects on alertness.

Evidence that specific executive functions predict symptom variance among schizophrenia patients with a predominantly negative symptom profile

Introduction. Although deficits in executive functioning in schizophrenia have been consistently reported, their precise relationship to symptomatology remains unclear. Recent approaches to executive functioning in nonschizophrenia studies have aimed to “fractionate” the individual cognitive processes involved. In this study, we hypothesised that if these processes are fractionable, then particular symptom syndromes may be selectively related to executive deficits. In particular, it was hoped that this approach could clarify whether negative and positive symptoms of schizophrenia are differentially related to particular aspects of executive/attentional functions. Methods. A total of 32 patients with schizophrenia and 16 matched controls were assessed on a series of tasks designed to tap the theoretically derived executive functions of Inhibition, Shifting set, Working memory, and Sustained attention. Results. Negative symptoms were significantly predicted by performance on an “Inhibition” task (Stroop), and not by performance on any other task. Furthermore, for a subgroup of patients with predominantly negative symptoms variance in positive symptoms was only significantly predicted by performance on a set-shifting task (Visual Elevator), and not by performance on other tasks, including inhibition. Conclusions. Our results support the contention that negative symptoms can, at least partly, be conceived of as cognitive behaviours expressing specific executive deficits. Specifically, we discuss the possibility that negative symptoms may, in part, express a failure in response monitoring. We further suggest that the disordered metacognition resulting in positive symptoms may be mediated by cognitive flexibility in patients with a predominantly negative symptom profile.

Subtle Executive Impairment in Children with Autism and Children with ADHD

The executive functions of inhibition, planning, flexible shifting of actions, and working memory are commonly reported to be impaired in neurodevelopmental disorders. We compared these abilities in children (8-12 years) with high functioning autism (HFA, n = 17), attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD, n = 21) and healthy controls (n = 32). Response inhibition was assessed using the Stroop Color and Word Test (Golden, 1978). Problem solving, set-shifting, and nonverbal memory were assessed using three tasks, respectively, from the CANTAB (Cambridge Cognition, 1996): the Stockings of Cambridge task; the Intra-Dimensional/Extra-Dimensional set-shifting task; and the Spatial Working Memory task (SWM) with tokens hidden behind 3, 4, 6, and 8 boxes. There were no group differences on the response inhibition, planning, or set-shifting tasks. On the SWM task, children with HFA made significantly more between-search errors compared with controls on both the most difficult problems (8-box) and on the mid-difficulty problems (6-box); however, children with ADHD made significantly more errors compared to controls on the most difficult (8-box) problems only. Our findings suggest that spatial working memory is impaired in both ADHD and HFA, and more severely in the latter. More detailed investigation is needed to examine the mechanisms that differentially impair spatial working memory, but on this set of tasks there appears to be sparing of other executive functions in these neuropsychiatric developmental disorders.

Inhibition and shifting in children with learning deficits in arithmetic and reading

The executive functions of inhibition and shifting were studied in arithmetic-disabled children, reading-disabled children, reading plus arithmetic-disabled children, and controls ( N = 74). Measures involved the rapid naming of objects, digits, letters, or quantities with or without additional task requirements that reflected inhibition or shifting. Also, the Making Trails task, reflecting shifting, was administered. For tasks without executive demands, arithmetic-disabled children were slower in the naming of digits and quantities, whereas reading-disabled children were slower in the naming of digits and letters. For the executive tasks, arithmetic-disabled children as well as reading plus arithmetic-disabled children were impaired on the Making Trails task and on an object naming task that required both inhibition and shifting. Reading-disabled children exhibited no problems in executive functioning. Furthermore, it was shown that reading plus arithmetic-disabled children experienced the combination of problems that characterize children with a single learning deficit.