Executive Functioning In School-age Children Research Articles

Chanting and meditation: an 8-week intervention to promote executive functions in school-age children

The present study investigated the effectiveness of a newly developed 8-week meditation program, which included chanting and meditation, on executive functions (EFs) in school-age children. Twenty-five students assigned to an experimental group participated in the meditation program, engaging in daily and weekly activities for 8 weeks. Another 25 students served as a control group and participated in regular school activities. Pretest and posttest assessments included the n-back task for working memory, the go/no-go task for inhibition, and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) for cognitive flexibility. A mixed repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to analyze interaction effects, within-group differences, and between-group differences. The experimental group demonstrated greater improvement compared to the control group across several measures: (1) reaction time in the 1-back task, (2) correct responses in the no-go condition of the go/no-go task, and (3) percentage of correct responses, errors, perseverative errors, non-perseverative errors, perseverative responses, and conceptual level responses in the WCST (p < 0.001). These findings underscore the potential benefits of an 8-week school-based meditation program incorporating chanting and meditation for enhancing EFs in school-age children.

Association of screen-based sedentary behavior with executive function in school-aged children: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study

Screen-based sedentary behavior (SSB) is a significant risk factor for the health of school-aged children, and guidelines recommend limiting SSB to 2 hr per day. This study aimed to examine association and potential mechanisms between SSB and executive function (EF) by comparing Stroop performance and frontal hemodynamic responses between children with and without excessive SSB. A total of 70 children aged 10 to 15 years were recruited and divided into two groups: excessive screen time (≥2 hr/day; n = 35; ES group) and normal screen time (<2 hr/day; n = 35; NS group). The Chinese version of the Adolescent Sedentary Activities Questionnaire was used to assess SSB, whereas EF was evaluated using the Stroop task. The frontal hemodynamic responses during the Stroop task were measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. The results indicated that the ES group had lower accuracy, longer reaction times, and greater activation in the bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and left pre-supplementary motor area (Pre-SMA) compared with the NS group. Furthermore, significant correlations were observed between Stroop performance and cortical activation in the left DLPFC and Pre-SMA. These findings demonstrate that excessive SSB is associated with poor EF, which may be explained by a decrease in neural efficiency of the left DLPFC and Pre-SMA.

Executive functioning in child victims of sexual abuse: A multi-informant comparative study

BackgroundResearch examining the association between child sexual abuse and executive functions is limited. Yet, exposure to traumatic situations at a young age has been associated with changes in the prefrontal cortex, which hosts executive functions (Wesarg et al., 2020). These functions are crucial for social adaptation, as they make it possible to inhibit maladaptive behavior and respond flexibly to the demands of the environment. As middle childhood is a sensitive period for the development of self-regulatory abilities, exploring executive functioning in school-age children could provide potential intervention targets (Dajani & Uddin, 2015). ObjectiveUsing multiple informants, this study compared executive functioning of sexually abused children to that of non-sexually victimized children and examined whether the differences were moderated by sex. MethodsThe sample consisted of 225, 6-to-12 years old children with a history of child sexual abuse (CSA) and 97 children without a history of CSA. Children completed two executive functioning tasks measuring cognitive flexibility and inhibition. Parents and teachers completed questionnaires evaluating children's executive functioning. ResultsIn comparison to non-abused children, children with a history of CSA displayed greater executive functioning difficulties as assessed by both informant-reported questionnaires and self-completed tasks. Significant interaction effects were found, such as CSA predicting lower inhibition and executive functions at school in boys but not in girls. ConclusionThis study is a first step in understanding the association between CSA and executive functioning and offers a clearer picture of the differential impact of sexual trauma according to children's sex.

Assessment of Executive Functioning in School-Age Children With And Without Stuttering: A case-control study

Background: Stuttering is defined as a neurodevelopmental disorder, with disruptions in the normal fluency and time patterning of speech that are inappropriate for the individual's age and language skills. Executive functions (EF) include various cognitive skills, such as directing the attention required for planning and maintaining thoughts and behaviors, suppressing inappropriate stimuli, keeping the processed information active, and providing the transition between the information. This study was aimed at investigating whether there is a difference between school-age children with and without stuttering about executive functions (EF) skills and attention. Method: Twenty-six children with stuttering (14 boys; mean age=10.1±2.88) and twenty-five children without stuttering (14 boys; mean age=10.2±2.77) aged between 7 and 12 were admitted to the study. The participants were administered the Visual Aural Digit Span Test-B Form (VADS-B), which evaluates working memory and audiovisual attention, and the Cancellation Tests (CT), which evaluates sustained attention. The Parents of the participants were applied the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), which was developed to evaluate executive functions, problem-solving skills and adaptive behaviors. Differences in mean subscores of VADS-B, CT, and BRIEF were analyzed using univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with participant group as the factor and VADS-B, CT, and BRIEF subscores as the dependent variable; Chronological age (years) was designated as a covariate. Results: This study was conducted between two groups that were equal in terms of age, gender, developmental steps (walking, talking, toilet training), family structure, and socioeconomic status (p&gt;0.05). All subscales of VADS-B (aural-verbal, aural-written, visual-verbal, visual-written) were found to be significantly lower in children with stuttering (p&lt;0.05). In cancellation test results, there was a significant difference between the groups in terms of hit scores and total number of errors in organized letter and random letter forms (p&lt;0.05). No difference was found between the two groups in the BRIEF scale completed by the parents (p&gt;0.05). Conclusion: This study demonstrated that school-aged children with stuttering had weaker working memory and sustained attention performance in performance-based tests. Thus, we believe that in the evaluation and treatment of stuttering, comprehensive approaches should be adopted to evaluate attention and executive functions and to improve these functions. In this area, studies with larger samples are needed in which stuttering, attention, and executive functions are evaluated more comprehensively with different tasks (computer-based performance tests, parent-teacher scales, etc.) and neuroimaging (magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]). Lastly, the tasks used in our study (VADS-B, CT, and BRIEF) were applied to Turkish-speaking school-age children with stuttering for the first time. In this regard, we think that our study will contribute to the literature.

Individual differences in second-order false-belief understanding and executive abilities: A meta-analytic review of evidence from school-age children and adults

Theory of Mind (ToM) and Executive Functioning (EF) are two pillars of human social cognition often studied in conjunction, but rarely considered together beyond childhood. Adults routinely undertake ToM activities of higher levels, such as those that require reasoning recursively through other individuals’ presumed reasoning about others (e.g., she believes that he believes that this is difficult to grasp). Yet, the possibility of links between EF and these special kinds of representations, termed second-order ToM, has been much less studied empirically. The objective of the current pre-registered report is to provide a meta-analytic review of the extant literature linking second-order ToM and EF in school-age children and adults. Studies reporting on the relation between EF and second-order ToM were located through systematic search of published and non-published research databases. A final set of 32 studies were meta-analyzed, providing 83 effect sizes and a pooled N of over 2584 child and adult participants. The developmental literature provided evidence of moderate second-order ToM-EF linkage in children (r = .25), which resisted statistical adjustment for age, and did not differ on the basis of children’s cultural background. In contrast, the adult findings were weaker (r = .09), and only accounted for a very small percentage of the meta-analyzed literature. Important methodological gaps were identified, highlighting the need for more research on the links between second-order ToM and EF.

Specific Language Impairment and Executive Functions in School-Age Children: A Systematic Review.

This systematic review examines the relationship between specific language impairment (SLI)and executive functions (EFs) in school-agechildren. The study investigates the impact of SLI on EF in comparison to children who develop normally. A total of2,658 articles from three databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Virtual Health Library)were assessed for inclusion. Ultimately, 22 articles were selected for analysis, which contained information on both SLI and EF. The findings indicate that children diagnosed with SLI exhibit deficits, low performance, and, in some cases, significant deterioration in the development of EF when compared to typically developing children in 62%-91% of cases as early as three to four years of age; the most commonly found alterations were in working memory (including phonological, auditory, and visual/verbal memory), followed by deficits in attention, processing speed, inhibition, planning, cognitive flexibility, and internalized speech. We also discuss the close relationship and importance between language and EF in SLI children.

Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review.

In the past three decades, there has been increasing interest in assessing children's Executive Functions (EF). However, studies on the conceptualization and operationalization of this construct are incongruent and guidance for clinicians and researchers aiming to assess EF is insufficient due to measurement variability. The purpose of this article was to examine current theories and models of EF in children, identify their assessment instruments, issues, and challenges, and discuss their impact on children's cognitive, behavioral, social and/or emotional development. This narrative review reflected on English and French scholarly articles on EF assessment in children. References were identified through searches of PubMed, Medline, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and APA PsychNet throughout the last two decades up to June 2022. There are commonalities despite divergence in the definition and operationalization of EF. Assessment of EF requires psychometric tests as well as rating scales that must be integrated and interpreted considering the child's biological makeup, environmental background, and cultural specificities. Current EF theories, assessment tools, issues, and challenges were discussed in addition to the impact of their components' dysfunctions on children's development. Further studies should be conducted to develop new measurement methods and technologies to improve the ecological and ethological validity of youth assessment, treatment, and interventions.

Dose-Related Effects of Endurance, Strength and Coordination Training on Executive Functions in School-Aged Children: A Systematic Review.

This systematic review aims to evaluate previous findings on the dose-related effects of short- and long-term physical activities (PA) on executive functions (EF) using a new approach by considering the success of experimental manipulation. Eight electronic databases were searched between May 2021 and September 2021. Randomized control trials among healthy children (6-12 years) were screened. Data extraction included the measurement of experimental manipulations and pre-post measurements of physical fitness. After identifying 1774 records, 17 studies were included (nine short-term PA and eight long-term PA). The overall results suggest that a single 20-min PA may be overwhelming for short-term EF in children up to 9 years of age but may be beneficial for children 9 years and older. A dose-related relationship between PA and EF could not be verified in long-term studies, which is possibly due to insufficient fitness gains and participation in the intervention. Short- and long-term endurance and coordination training could improve children's executive functions, but so far, there is no specific evidence on the duration, frequency, and intensity of PA. Not quantity but quality of intervention seems to be important in this context. Further intervention studies are needed that control for the characteristics of the experimental manipulation.

Association between dietary quality and executive functions in school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder.

BackgroundIt is well known that children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) had executive functions deficit. However, it is still unclear whether the poor dietary quality is related to the impairment of executive functions. The current study aimed to explore the association between dietary quality and executive functions in children with ASD.MethodsA total of 106 children with ASD (7.7 ± 1.3 years) and 207 typically developing (TD) children (7.8 ± 1.3 years) were enrolled from Guangzhou, China. The Chinese version of Behavior Rating Scale of Executive function (BRIEF), the working memory subscales of the Chinese version of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV), and the Stroop Color-Word Test (SCWT) were used to measure the participant's executive functions. The food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) was used to collect the dietary intake information, and the Chinese Diet Balance Index (DBI_16) was used to evaluate the dietary quality. Generalized linear models were used to estimate the association between dietary quality and executive functions.ResultsIn children with ASD, Low Bound Score (LBS) was positively correlated with the working memory subscale score of BRIEF (β = 0.23, 95% CI: 0.02–0.44, P < 0.05), while High Bound Score (HBS) and LBS were positively correlated with the organizable subscale score of BRIEF (β = 0.44, 95% CI: 0.11–0.77, P < 0.01; β = 0.19, 95% CI: 0.01–0.37, P < 0.05). Compared to TD children, children with ASD had a higher proportion of moderate and high levels of insufficient dietary intake (moderate level, 37.7% vs. 23.2%, high level, 4.7% vs. 1.4%) and moderate level of unbalanced dietary intake (36.8% vs.21.3%), higher scores on all subscales of BRIEF (P < 0.01), and lower score on the working memory (81.3 ± 32.3 vs. 104.6 ± 12.5, P < 0.01), while there was no difference on the SCWT.ConclusionPoor dietary quality was associated with the impairment of working memory and organizational capacity in children with ASD. This study emphasized the importance of dietary quality in executive functions among children with ASD, and attention should be paid to improving their dietary quality.

The developmental impact of sex chromosome trisomies on emerging executive functions in young children: Evidence from neurocognitive tests and daily life skills.

Sex chromosomal trisomies (SCT) are associated with impairments in executive functions in school-aged children, adolescents, and adults. However, knowledge on preschool development of executive functions is limited but greatly needed to guide early intervention. The current study examined emerging executive functions in young children with SCT. Participants were 72 SCT children and 70 population-based controls, aged 3-7 years, who completed a neurocognitive assessment of both global executive function (MEFS) and verbal executive function skills (NEPSY Word Generation). Caregivers completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) questionnaire to capture real-world behavioral manifestations of impairments in executive functions. Results showed that impairments were significantly more prevalent in SCT than in controls and already present from 3 years, specifically verbal executive functions and working memory. Broader more pronounced impairments were found in older children with SCT. Age was significantly related to executive functions, but specific domains showed different relations with age. For example, deficits in planning and organizing remained evident with older age in SCT whereas it declined with age in controls. Impairments in executive functions were present across different levels of intelligence. Already at an early age, impairments across executive functions should be considered part of the neurodevelopmental profile of SCT, which appear more prominent at later age. Future studies should investigate developmental pathways of executive functions in SCT, given its relevance in cognitive, social, and emotional development. Executive functions should be screened and monitored in children with SCT and could be an important target of preventive intervention.

Executive functions in school-aged children exposed to airborne manganese: A multilevel analysis

Neuropsychological alterations have been identified in populations heavily exposed to metals with neurotoxic potential, such as manganese (Mn). This study examined the associations between Mn environmental exposure in school-aged children and executive functions, using structural equation modeling. Children, aged between 7 and 12 years (N = 181), were recruited from four elementary schools located in a region that is under the influence of atmospheric emissions from a ferro-manganese alloy plant in the municipality of Simões Filho, Bahia, Brazil. The following cognitive functions were evaluated: Intelligence, Inhibitory Control, Cognitive Flexibility, Verbal and Design Fluency, Verbal and Visual Working Memory and Attention. We performed structural equation modeling to identify the following executive functions latent variables: working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility. We further analyzed the relations between executive functions and Mn measured in hair (MnH) and toenails (MnTn) with linear mixed models, after controlling for co-variables. A positive effect at the individual level on working memory, inhibition control and cognitive flexibility was observed with MnTn after controlling for co-variables, but no association was found with MnH levels. However, children attending school most environmentally exposed to Mn emissions, which had the highest rate of Mn dust deposition, had the poorest scores on working memory. These findings suggest both benefits and risk of Mn on children's cognitive development.

A Short Version of the EFECO Online Questionnaire for the Assessment of Executive Functions in School-Age Children.

Executive function (EF) is a group of processes that allow individuals to be goal-oriented and to have adaptive functioning, so that adequate performance is essential for success in activities of daily living, at school and in other activities. The present study aims to create a short version of the Executive Functioning Questionnaire (EFECO) since there is a gap in the Spanish literature due to the lack of behavioural observation questionnaires at school age. A total of 3926 participants completed the online questionnaire. Subsequently, the validity and reliability of the data are analysed. The results show that the short version of the questionnaire, the EFECO-S, has a structure with five dimensions (emotional self-control, initiation, working memory, inhibition, and spatial organisation), as well as a second-order factor (global executive skill) and high reliability (ordinal Alpha = 0.68–0.88). The EFECO is composed of 67 items, while the EFECO-S has 20 items, four per factor, which turns it into a quick and easy to apply test. Therefore, it becomes an interesting alternative to be applied in screening processes with children who may be experiencing executive difficulties.

Investigating longitudinal associations between parent reported sleep in early childhood and teacher reported executive functioning in school-aged children with autism.

Up to 80% of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) experience sleep disturbance. Poor sleep impairs executive functioning (EF), a lifelong difficulty in ASD. Evidence suggests EF difficulties in ASD are exacerbated by poor sleep. We examine whether early childhood sleep disturbances are associated with worsening EF trajectories in school-aged children with ASD. A subsample (n = 217) from the Pathways in ASD longitudinal study was analyzed. The Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire captured sleep duration, onset, and night awakenings before age 5 (mean = 3.5 years). Metacognition (MI) and Behavioral Regulation (BRI) indices, on the Teacher Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning, were used to measure cognitive and affective components of EF respectively at four time-points (7.8-11.8 years). We applied latent growth curve models to examine associations between sleep and EF, accounting for relevant covariates, including school-age sleep (mean = 6.7 years). Sleep traits had different age-related impacts on behavioral regulation, but not metacognition. Longer sleep onset at 3.5 years was associated with a worsening BRI difficulties slope (b = 2.07, p < 0.04), but conversely associated with lower BRI difficulties at 7.7 years (b = -4.14, p = 0.04). A longer sleep onset at 6.7 years was related to higher BRI difficulties at 7.7 years (b = 7.78, p < 0.01). Longer sleep duration at 6.7 years was associated with higher BRI difficulties at age 7.7 (b = 3.15, p = 0.01), but subscale analyses revealed shorter sleep duration at age 6.7 was linked to a worsening inhibition slope (b = -0.60, p = 0.01). Sleep onset is a robust early correlate of behavior regulation in children with ASD, whereas sleep duration is a later childhood correlate.

Performance of Children and Adolescents on Random Number Generation as a measure of Executive Functions

This study investigated the age-related differences in the random number generation (RNG) of children aged 7 to 15 years old (n=106) divided into three groups (7-9, 10-12 and 13-15 years of age) as it was compared to computer-generated pseudorandom sequences. The results showed that there was an age effect on four out of seven indices of randomization that are known to tap the Inhibition ability and the Updating ability (i.e., active manipulation of relevant information in working memory). The participants&amp;rsquo; (children&amp;rsquo;s and adolescents&amp;rsquo;; n=106) responses were significantly different from pseudorandom sequences (n=106) produced by the RgCalc program and no gender differences were observed. The RNG task indices that reflect inhibition ability did not correlate with the participants&amp;rsquo; performance on the Stroop color-word task. The development of executive functions in school-aged children and adolescents is discussed.

The Effects of Aerobic Versus Cognitively Demanding Exercise Interventions on Executive Functioning in School-Aged Children: A Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial.

The authors performed a clustered randomized controlled trial to investigate the effects of an aerobic and a cognitively demanding exercise intervention on executive functions in primary-school-age children compared with the regular physical education program (N = 856). They hypothesized that both exercise interventions would facilitate executive functioning, with stronger effects for the cognitively demanding exercise group. The interventions were provided four times per week for 14 weeks. Linear mixed models were conducted on posttest neurocognitive function measures with baseline level as covariate. No differences were found between the exercise interventions and the control group for any of the measures. Independently of group, dose of moderate to vigorous physical activity was positively related to verbal working memory and attention abilities. This study showed that physical exercise interventions did not enhance executive functioning in children. Exposure to moderate to vigorous physical activity is a crucial aspect of the relationship between physical activity and executive functioning.

The Relationship between Children’s Sensory Processing and Executive Functions: An Exploratory Study

ABSTRACT Sensory processing and executive functioning have been studied extensively as individual concepts in primary school children, yet little literature exists that has examined the relationship between these two factors. This study investigated the association between sensory processing and executive functioning in school-aged children. Parents of 40 typically developing children (= 7.42 years, SD = 0.95; 20 males and 20 females) completed the Sensory Profile 2 (SP-2) and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning, Second Edition (BRIEF-2). Spearman rho correlations and multiple linear regressions with bootstrapping were used to examine possible associations. Regression analysis findings indicated that all models were found to be statistically significant (p ≤ .001) with adjusted R2 values ranging from .30-.76. The SP-2 Avoiding, Sensitivity and Registration quadrant subscales were found to be significant predictors of the four BRIEF composite index scores. The SP-2 Body Position sensory subscale made unique contributions to the total variance of three BRIEF composite index models (Behavior Regulation Index = 9.7%, p = .01; Emotional Regulation Index = 8.8%, p < .001; Global Executive Composite = 6.3%, p = .01). The SP-2 Conduct behavioral subscale was also a unique contributor to three of the BRIEF composite index models’ total variance (Behavior Regulation Index = 14.5%, p = .01; Cognitive Regulation Index = 8.9%, p = .01; Global Executive Composite = 7.8%, p = .01). Children’s sensory processing and their executive functioning were strongly associated. The regression analyses demonstrated that a statistically significant predictive relationship between sensory processing as measured by the SP-2 and executive function as measured by the BRIEF-2 existed.

Developmental Profile of Executive Functioning in School-Age Children From Northeast Brazil.

The development of executive functions (EF) is recognizably correlated to culture, contextual and social factors. However, studies considering all the basic EF are still scarce in Brazil, most notably in the Northeast region, which is known for its social inequality and economic gap. This study aimed to analyze the developmental trajectories and structure of four EF, namely inhibition, flexibility, working memory and planning. In addition, the potential effects of socioeconomic status (SES) and gender were examined. The sample included 230 Brazilian children between 7-12 years old, homogeneously distributed by age, gender and type of school. The EF were assessed through the Brazilian version of the Child Executive Functions Battery (CEF-B). A global effect of age was found for most of the EF measures evaluated. Gender effect was mostly non-significant, except for 4 of the 12 tasks. There was a significant SES effect on 8 tasks, all in favor of private school children. Exploratory factorial and correlation analysis showed a 4-factor EF structure, corroborating the theoretical distribution considered in the CEF-B. A developmental progression is evident in the results for all of the EF measures evaluated. While gender had little influence on EF, SES seems to significantly impact the development of EF. As normative data are still lacking in Northeast Brazil, this study may help to understand EF development trajectories and provide tools for neuropsychological evaluation.

Cognitive and motor function in developmental coordination disorder

To analyse the development of motor skill and executive function in school-aged children with and without developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Using a longitudinal design, 186 children (86 males, 100 females) aged 6 to 11years at Time 1 were tested over a 2-year period, 52 of whom were diagnosed with DCD at Time 1 (27 males, 25 females; mean age 8y 5mo, SD 1y 6mo) using DSM-5 criteria. The McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development assessed motor status at Time 1 and at 2-year follow-up (Time 2). Executive function was assessed using a well-validated measure, the Groton Maze Learning Test. The DCD cohort at Time 1 had moderate incidence of executive function deficit (41%). Most importantly, at a group level, children with persisting DCD (across Times 1 and 2) also showed significantly lower levels of executive function than children with typical motor development at both time points. At an individual level, around 26% of children in this group had persisting executive function deficits relative to normal ranges of performance. Children with persisting DCD are at significant risk of executive function issues. The combination of motor and cognitive issues as a potential risk factor in the longer-term development of children is discussed. Around half of children initially diagnosed with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) had the same diagnosis at 2-year follow-up. 41% of children with DCD have impaired executive function. Children with persisting DCD show poorer executive function than those with typical motor development or remitting DCD.

Effects of a Cognitive-Functional Intervention Method on Improving Executive Function and Self-Directed Learning in School-Aged Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Single-Subject Design Study.

Background School-aged children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) face many difficulties with self-directed learning because of their poor executive function. This leads to secondary problems such as learning disabilities and depression, so the role of intervention to improve executive function in school-aged children with ADHD is important. Objective The present study is aimed to investigate how cognitive-functional (Cog-Fun) intervention affected executive function of school-aged children with ADHD and the sustainability of these effects. To investigate the effects of changes in the executive function of school-aged children with ADHD through Cog-Fun intervention in self-directed learning. Method A single-subject A-B-A research design was employed in this study. Three children aged 9-10 years who were diagnosed with ADHD were selected. A total of 17 experimental sessions were conducted. The Cog-Fun intervention program was implemented during the intervention phase. To measure dependent variables, Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) and Homework Problems Checklist (HPC) were used. Significant changes in executive function assessed by the Children's Color Trails Test (CCTT) and Stroop test were analyzed through two-standard deviation band analysis. Additionally, video clips of task performance were analyzed to examine qualitative performance changes in self-directed learning. Result All three participants presented statistically significant changes with a number of near-misses of CCTT and color words score of Stroop test during the intervention. T-scores of the Global Executive Composite (GEC) decreased after the intervention, indicating improvement in executive function. The follow-up period revealed retention of the improved executive function. Additionally, self-directed learning improved in all participants after the implementation Cog-Fun intervention. Conclusion The study supports the effectiveness of Cog-Fun intervention in improving executive function in school-aged children with ADHD and confirmed that the improvement of executive function ultimately leads to the improvement of self-directed learning performance.

Comparison of Idiom Comprehension Ability and Its Relationship to Executive Functions in School-Aged Children with and without Vocabulary Delay

본 연구는 학령기 어휘지연 아동과 일반 아동이 문맥 유무 조건에 따라 관용어 이해능력과 오류유형에 차이를 나타내는지 알아보고, 관용어 이해능력과 집행기능 하위 요소(작업기억, 억제, 전환)의관계를 살펴보고자 하였다. 이를 위하여 초등학교 4-6학년에 재학 중인 18명의 일반 아동과 19명의어휘지연 아동을 대상으로 관용어 이해 과제, 비단어 따라말하기, 정지신호과제, 차원전환카드분류과제를 실시하였다. 관용어 이해 과제에서 어휘지연 아동 집단은 일반 아동 집단보다 유의하게 낮은수행력을 보였으며, 두 집단은 문맥과제에서의 수행력이 높았다. 어휘지연 아동 집단은 억제 능력이취약하여 문맥 단서를 효율적으로 활용하지 못하였고, 이로 인해 관용적 의미를 파악하여 관용어를이해하는 데 어려움을 갖는 것으로 나타났다.This study aimed to compare idiom comprehension abilities and error types between school-aged children with typical development (TD) and those with vocabulary delay (VD). We also explored how and what kinds of relations lie among idiom comprehension skills and three executive function (EF) components (working memory, inhibition, shifting), in two groups. Eighteen children with TD and nineteen children with VD participated in this study. The children’s performance was assessed via idiom comprehension task and EF tasks of working memory, inhibition, and shifting (NWR, SST, DCCS). As a result, VD group performed significantly lower in general on idiom comprehension task than TD, and both performed better on the contextually cued condition. The results highlight that children with VD require conscious effort to activate inhibitory control of irrelevant information to fully make use of contextual cues.