Executive Function In Early Childhood Research Articles

Early childhood executive function predicts concurrent and later social and behavioral outcomes: A review and meta-analysis.

Executive function (EF), the set of mental processes and skills involved in goal-oriented planning, organizing, and controlling behavior, is believed to support child development across many domains of life. However, although ample evidence suggests a relation between childhood EF and academic skills, it is less clear what its role is in domains beyond academics. We report a meta-analysis of relations between early childhood EF (assessed at 36-60 months of age) and social, health, and behavioral outcomes assessed concurrently and longitudinally (1,459 effect sizes, 158 studies, n = 144,642). No significant relations were found between EF and health outcomes. EF was concurrently associated with emotion understanding and regulation, prosocial skills, peer acceptance, and skill at lying. Both concurrently and longitudinally, EF was positively associated with peer acceptance, adaptive classroom behavior, and social competence, and negatively associated with internalizing and externalizing problems, and inattention and hyperactivity. For adolescent outcomes, only the relation between EF and internalizing could be meta-analyzed, and no significant relation was found between these variables. The magnitude of effect sizes varied, with absolute values ranging from r = .02 to .30. Moderator analyses indicated the relation between EF and behavioral outcomes varied by outcome, but there was no such finding for EF and social or health outcomes. EF was more strongly associated with teacher- versus parent-reported behavioral problems. There was little evidence that quality indicators affected effect sizes. There was also little evidence of publication bias. Overall, our results are consistent with the possibility of broad relevance of EF for child development; yet, future research should provide stronger causal tests of hypothesized relations between EF and outcomes to better understand the nature of EF and whether fostering it can promote healthy development. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

PASS Theory and Movement Disorders: Methodology for Assessment and Intervention.

Executive dysfunction appears to be a significant secondary characteristic frequently linked with movement disorders. Planning is a high-level cognitive process integral to our executive functions. Children who show deficits in their planning ability usually have difficulties in making decisions or problem-solving, such as initiating tasks or mentally organizing a project, and monitoring and controlling their behavior effectively. These difficulties can significantly impact their academic performance and daily functioning even in adulthood. However, the existing research on the relationships between motor performance and planning abilities is limited and inconsistent. This study aimed to explore the potential associations between motor and planning skills in 30 preschool-aged children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) and 30 healthy controls matched for age, including utilizing the PASS theory and Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). The findings highlighted balance, total motor score, and planned codes as the primary factors distinguishing the two groups. A significant Pearson's correlation was observed between the overall MABC-2 scores and the subdomain scores, along with the Planning Scale indices for both groups, suggesting a substantial relationship between these assessments. Among the Planned codes items, the most notable predictor of overall motor performance in children was identified. Furthermore, the total score for Planned Connections emerged as the most robust predictor for tasks associated with manual dexterity. The relationship between motor skills and executive functions in early childhood plays a vital role in the development of early intervention strategies that utilize cognitive-motor tools.

Authentic Assessment of Executive Functions in Early Childhood: A Scoping Review

Authentic Assessment of Executive Functions in Early Childhood: A Scoping Review

Maternal emotional availability and perinatal depressive symptoms as predictors of early childhood executive function

BackgroundThe interconnected effects of maternal perinatal depression and the early mother-infant relational quality on children's executive function development are crucial yet understudied. This study addresses this gap, focusing on how perinatal depressive symptoms and emotional availability at 6 months predict child executive function performance at age four, with an emphasis on the moderating role of emotional availability. MethodThis study included 282 mother-infant pairs recruited from the Mercy Pregnancy and Emotional Wellbeing Study, utilising repeated Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale measurement over the perinatal period, Emotional Availability Scales, and child executive function assessments (Shape School, NEPSY-II, Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity scale, inattentive subscale). Latent growth curve analysis incorporated controls for socioeconomic status and maternal cognitive abilities, and moderation effects were examined through multiplicative interaction terms. ResultsWe found that emotional availability influences children's executive function, specifically switching, motor inhibition, and inattentive symptoms, irrespective of maternal depressive symptom changes. This effect is further nuanced by emotional availability's moderating role in the association between depressive symptom change and switching. LimitationsThe study's limitations include a relatively small sample size for moderation analysis and the exclusion of paternal influences. ConclusionThis study is a significant step in understanding the profound influence of maternal emotional availability in infancy on child executive function development, offering new avenues for research and, if replicated, a foundation for innovative intervention approaches.

Recreational gymnastics exercise of moderate intensity enhances executive function in Chinese preschoolers: A randomized controlled trial.

The current study aimed to investigate the impact of recreational gymnastics on executive function in Chinese preschoolers, with a focus on gymnastics potential to enhance core components of executive function. A total of 63 preschool children who received full-time education were randomly assigned to either an intervention group (N = 31, mean age = 66.27 months, SD = 3.12 months) or a control group (N = 32, mean age = 66.79 months, SD = 3.34 months). The intervention group engaged in recreational gymnastics for 60 min, three times a week for 12 weeks. Meanwhile, the control group continued with their typical outdoor activities at kindergarten and did not participate in any organized sports. The intervention program was primarily conducted through group play and was facilitated by teachers who underwent standardized training. Various simple and complex tasks were utilized to evaluate delay gratification (Snack delay and Wrapped gift), inhibitory control (Stop signal task and Circle drawing task), working memory (Letter memory task and Keep track task), and cognitive flexibility (Go/No-Go task and Dots task). The analysis of covariance revealed that the children who participated in the intervention outperformed the control group on most simple and complex executive function tasks. Specifically, these children demonstrated an enhanced ability to regulate persistent responses, process and update information, and manage high cognitive conflict. The findings of this investigation lend support to the hypothesis that moderate-intensity recreational gymnastics is an efficacious means of enhancing executive function in early childhood. Future research should employ a larger sample size, incorporate a long-term follow-up design, and utilize a multi-method approach to further substantiate the impact of moderate-intensity gymnastics on the executive function of young children, as well as to investigate its underlying mechanism and generalizability.

Supplemental Material for Early Childhood Executive Function Predicts Concurrent and Later Social and Behavioral Outcomes: A Review and Meta-Analysis

Supplemental Material for Early Childhood Executive Function Predicts Concurrent and Later Social and Behavioral Outcomes: A Review and Meta-Analysis

Association between the use of digital media and executive functions in early childhood

This study aims to investigate the associations between the use of digital media and the executive functions of children in early childhood. Employing a descriptive-exploratory cross-sectional design, quantitative data analysis was conducted through an online survey. Data were collected using a Socioeconomic Questionnaire, the Child Executive Functioning Inventory, and a Media Use Questionnaire. A total of 58 parents, representing both genders, participated in the study, and their children were aged between 3 and 5 years old. Our findings reveal that parents primarily permit the use of digital media for everyday tasks. Notably, children who used digital media the most in their daily activities exhibited poorer performance on the Children's Executive Functioning Inventory. The data expands our understanding of media usage, its impact, and its repercussions on child development, daily life, and family interaction.

The trajectory of maternal perinatal depressive symptoms predicts executive function in early childhood.

Perinatal maternal depression may affect fetal neurodevelopment directly or indirectly via exposures such as smoking, alcohol, or antidepressant use. The relative contribution of these risk factors on child executive function (EF) has not been explored systematically. A prospective pregnancy cohort of 197 women and their children was studied to determine whether maternal depression diagnosis and the trajectory of maternal depressive symptoms (MDSs) from early pregnancy to 12 months postpartum predicts child EF at age 4 (measured using the preschool age psychiatric assessment, NEPSY-II, and Shape School task) using latent growth curve modeling. Indirect effects of smoking, alcohol, and antidepressant use were also formally tested. Increasing maternal perinatal depressive symptoms over time predicted more inattentive symptoms, poorer switching, and motor inhibition, but not cognitive inhibition. When adjusted for multiple comparison, and after accounting for maternal cognition and education, the association with child inattentive symptoms remained significant. However, diagnosed depression did not predict child EF outcomes. Prenatal exposure to smoking, alcohol, and antidepressants also did not mediate pathways from depressive symptoms to EF outcomes. Our findings were limited by sample size and statistical power to detect outcome effects of smaller effect size. This study suggests that increasing MDSs over the perinatal period is associated with poorer EF outcomes in children at age 4 - independent of prenatal smoking, drinking, or antidepressant use. Depressive chronicity, severity, and postpartum influences may play crucial roles in determining childhood outcomes of EF.

Degree of bilingualism and executive function in early childhood

Abstract This study explores the relationship between executive functioning (EF) and degree of bilingualism in a sample (N = 79) of 5- to 7-year-old monolingual and bilingual children. The bilingual group included children who are fully fluent in two languages (balanced bilinguals) and children who are still learning their second language (dual-language learners (DLLs). In general, findings revealed mixed associations between bilingualism and EF. There were no language group differences for one type of simple inhibitory control (i.e., go or no-go task). However, a bilingual advantage was demonstrated for another type of simple inhibitory control (the Head–Toes–Knees–Shoulders task), for complex inhibitory control (i.e., the Simon effect), and for cognitive flexibility (Dimensional Change Card Sort). Effects were found when DLLs and balanced bilinguals were analyzed separately, and the latter two effects were found when both types of bilinguals were compared to monolinguals. The findings contribute to the growing literature examining a possible bilingual effect in early childhood.

Associations of gross motor skills with self-regulation and executive function in preschool-aged children

This study aimed to examine associations between gross motor skills and executive functions (EF) in a large sample of Australian preschool-aged children. Of 566 children (mean age = 3.2 ± 0.4 years, 51.2% girls), locomotor, object control, and total skill competence were significantly associated with visual spatial working memory and inhibition ( p < 0.05). Total skill competence was associated with shifting and locomotor skills were significantly associated with self-regulation ( p < 0.05). Static balance was significantly associated with inhibition and shifting ( p < 0.05). In boys, an association between object control skills and visual spatial working memory was observed. In girls, an association between static balance and visual spatial working memory, phonological working memory, and shifting was observed. The identification of significant associations between gross motor skills and different EFs is an important contribution to the growing evidence on the relationship between motor skills and EFs in early childhood.

THE INFLUENCE OF PARENTING AND INDEPENDENCE PATTERNS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS

Early childhood is the age where children experience very rapid development. Therefore it is important for them to get all the best in order to achieve optimal development. This research was conducted to provide an overview of 1) The effect of parenting style on the development of executive function in early childhood 2) The effect of independence on the development of executive function in early childhood. 3) The effect of parenting and independence on the development of executive functions in early childhood. This research uses quantitative methods. This research was conducted because the effect of parenting and independence on the executive function of group A children in West Java Province had never been investigated. As for the processing and collection of data is done through multi random sampling . The subjects in the study were children aged 4-5 years from the same area with different parenting styles. The research location is a kindergarten in the city of Bekasi - West Java. As a result, parenting and independence have a very important role for the development of executive function early childhood.

Executive function in early childhood: Harnessing the potential of nature-based practices to elevate and equalize outcomes

This study examined the effect of nature-based practices on preschoolers’ executive function (EF). The Minnesota Executive Function Scale was administered to 147 children within one school district at the beginning and end of the preschool year. Results suggest incorporating nature-based practices into preschool was effective, as children in preschool classrooms where nature-based practices were used had significantly higher levels of EF at the end of the school year than children in programs where nature-based practices were more minimally used. Preschools that used a blended approach (some incorporation of nature-based practices) were significantly more effective than preschools that had lesser incorporation of nature-based practices. Results also point to the effectiveness of a blended approach for supporting EF in lower SES children. This study contributes to the literature regarding effective practices for supporting EF development and adds to the growing body of research surrounding the impact of nature play on child development and school readiness.

The role of language in the association between theory of mind and executive functioning in early childhood: New longitudinal evidence

This study examined the temporal associations between theory of mind (ToM) and executive function (EF) and the effect of language skills on these associations in the development of young children. Data were collected on three occasions in a longitudinal study of children aged 3-6 years (N = 142). A longitudinal cross-lagged analysis was used to examine the bidirectional effects of ToM and EF and associations with language skills. Results extend previous findings by showing that EF measured at the first observation (average age 56 months) was likely to influence ToM at the second observation (average age 64 months). This effect was not reciprocal. However, the effect between ToM and EF became bidirectional over a six month period from the second to third observation (average age 70 months). In addition, language was found to influence both ToM and EF beyond the directional effect of these constructs on each other.

Questions that Fuel the Mind: Exploring the Associations between Teacher-Child Higher-Level Interaction and Preschoolers’ Development of Executive Functions

ABSTRACT Recent research has provided mixed evidence on the promise of classroom-based interventions for supporting young children’s development of executive functions (EF). To advance intervention efforts, it is necessary to identify specific types of interactions that might support the development of EF in early childhood. Through a correlational design, this study explores the relationship between higher-level, teacher-child interaction in Head Start classrooms and children’s EF. Higher-level interaction was measured using both global and fine-grained approaches. Children completed task-based assessments targeting individual components of EF at the beginning and end of a preschool year. Research Findings: Hierarchical linear modeling revealed that the frequency of teachers’ higher-level questions was significantly associated with a spring composite EF score and spring cognitive flexibility, controlling for fall scores and other covariates. A global measure of higher-level interaction was negatively associated with spring inhibitory control, controlling for fall scores. Neither measure of higher-level interaction was associated with spring working memory. Practice and Policy: This study has methodological implications for the value in measuring teacher-child interaction using more fine-grained approaches in order to reveal important associations with child outcomes. In relation to practice, this study suggests that intervention efforts to support teachers’ use of higher-level interaction strategies may support children’s development of EF.

Longitudinal development of executive function from infancy to late childhood

Executive function (EF) is difficult to measure in young children because of its heterotypic profile and the rapid development that occurs from infancy through late childhood. To examine EF development, we created age-specific latent factors of EF at ages 5 months, 10 months, 24 months, 36 months, 48 months, and 9 years and used structural equation modeling to create an autoregressive model from infancy through late childhood. Although EF remains difficult to measure due to task constraints, toddler EF as measured by these behavioral tasks is a relatively stable predictor of later EF. Understanding this construct and its developmental trajectory is necessary for creating appropriate experimental designs and interventions to address EF in early childhood.

Which play is better? Different play types and development of executive functions in early childhood

ABSTRACT In this study we aimed to compare the contribution of each play type to the development of different EFs components: shifting, working memory (visuospatial and auditory) and inhibition (two aspects of cognitive inhibition and physical inhibition). Following a preliminary examination of EFs was the intervention, which consisted of 14 play sessions for 20–30 min twice a week. Participants (n = 199, 46.7% females), aged from 52 to 69 months (M = 60.79; SD = 4.10) were assigned to one of five experimental groups: three types of role play (free role play; adult-directed play; child-directed play), digital games, games with rules (board games). All the measured EFs significantly increased following the digital games’ intervention. In ‘Games with rules’ and ‘Adult-directed play’ intervention groups, significant changes were registered in 5 (out of 6) measures of EFs. In the ‘Free play’ and ‘Child-directed play’, significant changes were found in 4 measures of EFs. Differential effect of play on EFs components is discussed. These results demonstrate the importance of play for EFs development and given the differential effect of play types, those can be applied based on the children’s needs.

Sleep disturbances moderate the association between effortful control and executive functioning in early childhood

Executive functioning, composed of higher-order cognitive skills, rapidly develops in early childhood and is foundational for school readiness and school-age academic achievement. Identifying constellations of factors that are related to the development of executive functioning may inform interventions that prepare children for academic success. This study examined sleep disturbances as a moderator of the association between effortful control, defined as temperament-based self-regulation, and executive functioning among young children. Multiple regressions controlling for child gender and age and caregiver education tested the study research question. Participants were 54 children (Mage = 4.25 years, SD = 0.98; 56% male, 85% White) and their primary caregivers. Caregivers reported on children’s effortful control and sleep disturbances via questionnaire, and executive functioning was objectively measured using two well-validated assessment tools. Results showed that high effortful control was associated with better performance on both executive functioning tasks for children with few sleep disturbances. Effortful control was not related to executive functioning in the context of high levels of sleep disturbances. Thus, children whose caregivers observed them to have a temperamental predisposition for higher self-regulation as well as fewer sleep disturbances had the highest executive functioning, suggesting that better-quality sleep may enhance the association between high effortful control and children’s executive functioning. Self-regulation and sleep both are responsive to intervention and may be useful targets to improve executive functioning and in turn academic preparedness and success.

Parent Provision of Choice Is a Key Component of Autonomy Support in Predicting Child Executive Function Skills.

Although previous work has linked parent autonomy support to the development of children’s executive function (EF) skills, the role of specific autonomy-supportive behaviors has not been thoroughly investigated. We compiled data from four preschool-age samples in the Midwestern United States (N = 366; M age = 44.26 months; 72% non-Hispanic White, 19% Black/African American, 5% Multiracial) to examine three relevant autonomy-supportive behaviors (supporting competence, positive verbalizations, and offering choice) and their associations with child EF. We coded parent autonomy-supportive behaviors from a 10-min interaction between parent and child dyads working on challenging jigsaw puzzles together. Children completed a battery of EF. Overall, child EF was most consistently correlated with the offering choice subscale. Additionally, only the offering choice subscale predicted child EF while controlling for the other autonomy support subscales and child age. These results suggest that parent provision of choice is an especially relevant aspect of autonomy-supportive parenting and may be important to the development of EF in early childhood. Future research should directly measure children’s experience with choice and how it relates to emerging EF.

Theory of mind and executive function in early childhood: A cross-cultural investigation

This cross-cultural study compared family environments and performance on theory of mind (ToM) and executive function (EF) in 236 3- to 6-year-old children in Japan (N = 117, Mage = 5.14, SD =0.82, 56 boys and 61 girls) and the UK (N = 119, Mage = 5.09, SD =0.86, 55 boys and 64 girls). Matched for age, verbal ability, gender, SES, and family structure (family size, solo vs. dual parenting, no sibling, no older sibling vs. older sibling), Japanese children showed worse ToM but better EF performance, although not across all measures or ages. This study used carefully matched samples and is the first direct comparison of children from Japan and the UK to examine both ToM and EF. Findings are discussed in relation to sociocultural factors (especially variation in the nature of SES across countries) and the complexity of the development of mind in diverse cultural contexts.

Exploring the interplay of dopaminergic genotype and parental behavior in relation to executive function in early childhood.

Child genotype is an important biologically based individual difference conferring differential sensitivity to the effect of parental behavior. This study explored dopaminergic polygenic composite × parental behavior interactions in relation to young children's executive function. Participants were 135 36-month-old children and their mothers drawn from a prospective cohort followed longitudinally from pregnancy. A polygenic composite was created based on the number of COMT, DAT1, DRD2, and DRD4 alleles associated with increased reward sensitivity children carried. Maternal negative reactivity and responsiveness were coded during a series of structured mother-child interactions. Executive function was operationalized as self-control and working memory/inhibitory control. Path analysis supported a polygenic composite by negative reactivity interaction for self-control. The nature of the interaction was one of diathesis-stress, such that higher negative reactivity was associated with poorer self-control for children with higher polygenic composite scores. This result suggests that children with a higher number of alleles may be more vulnerable to the negative effect of negative reactivity. Negative reactivity may increase the risk for developing behavior problems in this population via an association with poorer self-control. Due to the small sample size, these initial findings should be treated with caution until they are replicated in a larger independent sample.