Exclusionary Discipline Research Articles

School Transportation as Social Capital: Suburban School Leaders at the Wheel of Equitable Access

The roots of opportunity gaps in suburban schools often lie hidden in widely-accepted operational practices. Despite the importance of the informal curriculum to social capital development, suburban leaders sometimes underestimate how transportation restrictions can bar access to resources that are critical to advancing their Black, Brown, and lower-income students. This case illuminates how racism, classism, and housing segregation worked synergistically to create marginalizing transportation conditions in a majority-White suburban high school, and how the social-emotional impact ultimately led to the exclusionary discipline of two students. It addresses how race-neutral policies and deficit cultures contribute to unjust treatment of minoritized students, and underscores the need for suburban leaders to become racially literate and advocate for practices that ensure equitable access to capital-building resources for every student.

What is Known About LGBTQ Youth and Exclusionary Discipline? A Scoping Review

ABSTRACT Exclusionary discipline is a major contributor to school pushout and the school-to-prison pipeline, which criminalizes educational environments through processes and practices that often result in the incarceration of youth. While there is extensive evidence on the pathways and impacts of exclusionary discipline for students of color, its impacts on LGBTQ youth are understudied. This scoping review aims to identify and synthesize the existing empirical research concerning exclusionary school discipline of LGBTQ youth. Following the six-stage approach outlined by the Joanna Briggs Institute, an electronic search was conducted from a total of nine databases. Our search yielded a total of 740 results; of those, 10 met the inclusion criteria and were included in the final review. Findings indicate that LGBTQ youth, especially girls, experience exclusionary discipline at disproportionate rates. These youth are often disciplined as part of their own victimization, by both peers and adults in schools. While race and the need for intersectional understanding of LGBTQ exclusionary discipline were often touched on, most studies do not include race in their analysis. Future research that examines LGBTQ exclusionary discipline through an intersectional lens is needed.

The Impact of the Missouri School-Wide Positive Behavior Support (MO SW-PBS) on Disciplinary Exclusions

The negative outcomes of exclusionary discipline practices on children and youth are well established. Fortunately, for the past two decades, research has demonstrated that pro-active instructional approaches and building supportive class and school environments can effectively promote student social, emotional, and behavioral well-being, especially when evidence-based practices are placed within a problem-solving multitiered system of supports such as school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (SWPBIS). Recent work examining state-wide behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) initiatives, which include professional development and technical assistance to school leadership teams, has clearly documented that educators can reduce problem behavior and thereby reduce the need or use for exclusionary discipline practices. This study extends that body of knowledge by examining Missouri’s SWPBIS initiative over time and across grade levels. Using an extant data base, schools implementing SWPBIS with fidelity were compared with nonimplementing schools over 11 school years. Results indicated that schools implementing SWPBIS with fidelity had statistically significant lower rates of exclusionary discipline practices at the primary, middle, and high school level. Results are discussed within the context of past state-wide SWPBIS initiatives.

Common Elements of Trauma-Informed Schools and Attention to Racial Equity: A Scoping Review

Abstract Introduction Notwithstanding the multiple descriptions and principles associated with trauma-informed schools (TIS), the field lacks a well-defined operational definition of TIS. This scoping review aimed to characterize TIS intervention components and implementation strategies described in published studies of TIS. This review also examined the extent to which published examples of TIS had an explicit focus on promoting racial equity. Method: Eligible studies described school- or district-wide trauma-informed approaches in Preschool-12 education, and included elements across at least two domains of TIS design: Organizational & Policy Reforms; Workforce Professional Development/Training; and Educational & Clinical Practices. A trained coding team reviewed eligible studies and applied 32 codes characterizing TIS intervention components and implementation strategies. Results: 30 eligible studies were identified. The most common implementation strategies included availability of trauma-informed training & consultation, implementation progress monitoring, and developing community partnerships. The most common intervention components included multi-tiered interventions and specific knowledge areas for trauma-informed training content. Least common, were intervention components related to promoting racial equity (e.g., de-implementation of exclusionary discipline, de-implementation of carceral practices, and culturally inclusive curriculum). Conclusion: Findings suggest TIS components related to implementation strategies are most frequently employed, and that explicit attention to racial equity was infrequent in published descriptions of TIS design and implementation.

Agency, Structure, and Organization: School-Wide Approaches to Dismantling Injustice

Schools and districts have long grappled with race- and disability-based exclusionary discipline inequities. Research on the topic has uncovered a variety of systems that maintain such disparities, including school policies and practices that exacerbate the problem. Researchers and practitioners have increasingly considered school context and practices as mediators of both special education and exclusionary discipline risk. Although educational leaders are often required to review policies, practices, and procedures that contribute to inequities, few tools exist for practical translation toward school-wide solutions. This case is designed to help school and district leaders translate theory and research into practical actions for transformational change. The case provides considerations for designing and implementing culturally responsive Multi-Tiered Systems and Supports within a given school context, including climate and programming.

Multifaceted perception of school climate: association between students’ and teachers’ perceptions and other teacher factors

IntroductionThis study aimed to investigate whether there is a significant association between teachers’ and students’ perceptions of school climate, and if not, whether teacher factors are associated with the respective perceptions.MethodsThe participants included 1,831 students and 59 homeroom teachers from 11 public elementary and junior high schools in Japan. Multilevel models were used to examine the association between students’ and teachers’ perceptions of school climate.ResultsOf the three teacher-rated school climate scales, only teacher-perceived disciplinary climate was associated with students’ perceptions of school climate. Teachers’ working conditions, such as self-efficacy and stress, were associated with teachers’ perceptions but not students’ perceptions of school climate. Disciplinary climate was associated with students’ perceptions of school climate, even after accounting for the teachers’ working conditions.DiscussionItems questioning specific student behaviors, such as those included in the disciplinary climate scale, may be effective in avoiding incongruence with student evaluations. Moreover, maintaining disciplinary climate itself is important for students’ positive perceptions of the school climate. A disciplinary climate in which teachers and students share responsibility for learning and classroom organization, and strategies that support positive student behavior are preferable to exclusionary discipline strategies. Incorporating feedback data gathered through classroom observations or student perceptions is also important in resolving the incongruence between teachers’ and students’ perceptions of the school climate.

Early Education Suspension and Expulsion: Newly Released AAP Policy Guidelines

Childcare and early educational programs provide children with the opportunities to learn and develop social skills prior to being introduced into the academic system. Suspension and expulsion from childcare and early education programs occur in high numbers and can cause life-long detrimental effects for children. Federal and state legislation has made advances over the years, but further development and implementation of universal policies are needed in order to reduce the number of young children being suspended and expelled. Pediatric nurse practitioners have a unique role in screening, identifying, and intervening when children are at risk or have experienced exclusionary discipline tracts.

The Effects of Restorative Practice Curriculum on Student Behavior at A Disciplinary Alternative Secondary Campus

This mixed-methods, sequential explanatory case study was designed to assess the effects of a Restorative practices intervention curriculum on student behavior at a disciplinary alternative secondary campus, and to assess the effects of this curriculum on teacher and administrator decisions regarding student discipline, through the lenses of Social Justice Theory. There is currently no data available on the effects of Restorative practices among students who are already receiving the impact of exclusionary discipline in schools in the United States. Quantitative data was extrapolated using campus disciplinary data over the course of two academic school years. Qualitative data was extrapolated through a 42-question survey protocol and an eight-question interview protocol. The results assert Restorative practices curricula appear to have a positive impact on student’s behavior, teacher’s classroom management decisions, and administrator’s disciplinary decisions at the disciplinary alternative school.

Do I Belong Yet? The Relationship Between Special Education, In-School Suspension, Belonging, and Engagement

Students receiving special education services are disproportionately subjected to exclusionary discipline compared to their nondisabled peers. They also report feeling less connected and engaged at school, which is associated with exclusionary discipline experiences. Using data from the High School Longitudinal Study (2009), we examined the relationship between special education, in-school suspension, school belonging, and school engagement. In line with past research, we found that students who received special education services were at a higher risk of in-school suspension than their general education peers. Students with higher levels of school engagement were at a lower risk of receiving in-school suspension, regardless of special education services. However, higher levels of school belonging were associated with more suspensions for those receiving special education, while the inverse was true for nonspecial education students. Additional research is needed to understand this unique relationship and its implications for discipline and the school experiences of students with dis/abilities.

Training school psychologists to conduct culturally informed Functional Behavior Assessment interviews.

Exclusionary discipline is a racialized mechanism through which schools systematically remove racially and ethnically minoritized youth from the learning environment. Although the development of Functional Behavior Assessments (FBAs) and linked behavior support plans have been identified as an alternative practice, school psychologists often do not ask questions about the cultural and contextual factors that may influence students' behavior during FBA interviews. Therefore, training is warranted. Unfortunately, staff often have limited time and resources to devote to professional development; therefore, it is critical to ensure that training procedures that require more time offer better outcomes than those that require fewer resources. The present study compared the effectiveness of high intensity training (e.g., behavioral skills training) versus a low intensity training procedure (e.g., self-training) procedures on school psychologists' ability to facilitate simulated FBA interviews grounded in cultural humility with caregivers before and after exposure to one of two training conditions. Findings from regression analyses indicated that self-training adequately prepared school psychologists to adhere to the questions on the protocol, however, behavioral skills training improved the quality of interview delivery. Implications for future research and training are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Can Teacher Collaboration Buffer Against a Reliance on Exclusionary Discipline? An Exploratory Study of Collegial Social Network and Functional Community Theories in New York City High Schools

This study investigates the association between teachers’ perceptions of collaboration and the use of exclusionary discipline in New York City public high schools in 2017. We draw on the existing theories of collegial social networks and functional communities to explain how teachers work together to shape the school environment in which students experience discipline. Using multiple linear regression analysis, we found that teachers’ perception of collaboration within their work environment was associated with lower rates of exclusionary discipline. Our results suggest that administrators could utilize the lever of teacher collaboration when trying to reduce the use of exclusionary discipline within schools. Additionally, programs aimed at providing alternatives to exclusionary discipline may benefit from greater explicit inclusion of collaborative practices.

The long-term consequences of school suspension and expulsion on depressive symptoms

Exposure to exclusionary discipline has been tied to several deleterious outcomes in adulthood, including contact with the criminal legal system. While this work provides interesting insight into the long-term consequences tied to this form of school punishment, few have attempted to consider whether and how, exclusionary discipline practices, in particular, school suspension and expulsion shape mental health patterning over the life course. Using panel data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, we contribute to this body of literature by examining whether exposure to school suspension or expulsion shapes depressive symptom trajectories from adolescence to adulthood. Results from our mixed-effects linear growth curve models demonstrate both forms of exclusionary discipline play a significant role in depressive symptom trajectories. We find suspended and expelled youth exhibit significantly higher depressive symptoms in adolescence when compared to their counterparts with no history of suspension or expulsion. Results also show age variation in depressive symptom trajectories by history of exposure to exclusionary discipline. Specifically, results show the depressive symptoms gap between disciplined and non-disciplined youth slightly dissipates as youth age into early adulthood, but as individuals begin to transition out of this stage of the life course, the gap in depressive symptoms widens substantially. Results carry implications for how punitive disciplinary practices in schools shape mental health from adolescence to adulthood.

A qualitative comparison of parents’ experiences of early childhood expulsion following a legislative ban

Over the past decade, numerous reports have indicated pervasively high rates of early childhood expulsion nationwide. In response, state and federal policymakers have enacted various measures to ban or reduce reliance on such exclusionary discipline. Prior evaluations of the implementation of one such legislative ban on expulsion enacted in Illinois in 2018 showed partial reductions but relied only on program administrator-reported data. Parents (N = 16) of children (43.75% children of color) expelled from Illinois early childhood programs before and in the years since the 2018 legislative ban were interviewed about their experiences. Parents in both groups reported similar incidents regarding how and why children are excluded, how programs communicated with parents about children’s behavioral concerns, and how programs assisted (or did not) with accessing resources and supports that may enable a child to be retained. Findings indicate that expulsions continue to happen despite the ban and families’ experiences were essentially unchanged and negative. Findings hold implications for the implementation of similar policy efforts across the country.

Considerations for improving racial equity in schools: Applying a cultural historical framework

ABSTRACT Educational agencies with inequities in special education or exclusionary discipline are required to review local policies, practices, and procedures as potential drivers of disproportionality. Indeed, disparities manifest in both locally and through broad, historical narratives; solutions must thus address both local context and histories of power and privilege. However — despite racial and ethnic disparities defining inequities, school-wide approaches enacted for addressing drivers (e.g. multi-tiered systems of support) rarely center culturally sustaining, anti-racist, and anti-ableist lenses that consider the sociohistorical contexts of an educational space. Further, there is little practical guidance regarding how to implement these frameworks through such a lens, leaving school stakeholders with scant guidance for understanding and addressing inequities via school-level, institutional practices. We outline practical implementation ideas that practitioners might use when selecting school-wide programs meant to shift inequitable systems and provide meaningful access to learning for all students.

Site and Provider Characteristics Associated with the Use of Exclusionary Discipline in Minnesota Early Care and Education Sites

ABSTRACT Research Findings: The present study examined site and provider characteristics that may be associated with use of exclusionary discipline in center- and home-based childcare sites (N = 320). Higher numbers of suspensions and expulsions occurred at center-based sites and at sites with greater percentages of children of color. Furthermore, sites that received professional support services expelled more children. At the provider level, expulsions were higher among providers who had fewer years of experience, endorsed elevated levels of burnout, and received professional support services. Classroom suspensions were higher among providers who had earned an associate degree or higher and who rated developmentally appropriate and culturally inclusive practices as less important. Practice or Policy: Organizational, state, and federal policies that limit and regulate exclusionary discipline practices may reduce inequities affecting young children of color. Furthermore, it is important to increase access to training that will enhance providers’ knowledge of developmentally appropriate and inclusive practices and reduce burnout, particularly for less experienced providers and providers at center-based sites. Increased monitoring of early childhood suspensions (rather than only expulsions) can help align resources with childcare sites in need. Longitudinal studies evaluating the effects of policies and interventions that reduce suspensions and expulsions are needed.

Race-Conscious Teacher Coaching: Disrupting Implicit Bias and Improving Teachers’ Relationships with Black Students

ABSTRACT Racial discipline disproportionality is a persistent issue in schools with Black students experiencing exclusionary discipline two to three times more than their White peers, and Black males more likely to be diagnosed with an emotional and behavioral disorder. Interventions that target malleable root causes of disproportionality and have an explicit racial bias component may disrupt these processes. The study took place in an alternative school setting across two classrooms with White, fifth- and sixth-grade teachers (n = 2) and their Black students (n = 6). A single-case, withdrawal design (A-B-A-B) examined the impact of a semi-structured teacher coaching intervention on disrupting biases, improving classroom management and cultural competency, and ultimately improving student-teacher relationships. The coaching included Mindful STOP as a self-regulation strategy, the Mindful Reflection Protocol to discuss behaviors, and performance feedback, all focusing on outcomes related to student-teacher relationships and discipline. During intervention phases, Teacher 1 showed improvements in positive communication while keeping negative communication low. Teacher 2 showed smaller, more variable improvements. Teachers and students in both classrooms reported improvements in their relationships based on pre/post rating scales. Teacher-reported discipline outcomes were variable. These findings may provide concrete strategies for supporting the development of equitable discipline practices for Black students. Future studies will explore modifications to the current coaching package.

Family–School Relationships and Exclusionary Discipline of Students With and Without Disabilities

Using data extracted from the Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey of the 2019 National Household Education Surveys Program, this study used a series of linear probability models to examine the association between family–school relationships and exclusionary discipline. The sample included 15,360 U.S. families of K–12 non-homeschooled and non-virtual school students. Results suggest that students with disabilities experienced significantly more expulsion and suspension and that their families were less satisfied with school and received significantly more individual contact from school for negative reasons. In addition, parent satisfaction with school and individual contacts from school to parent regarding positive behaviors or schoolwork and behavior problems were statistically significantly associated with exclusionary discipline after accounting for student characteristics, such as race, age, and gender. These associations between family–school relationships and exclusionary discipline did not differ by a student’s disability status.

Understanding early childhood stakeholders’ beliefs and experiences with discipline using virtual learning labs

ABSTRACT Young children of colour with disabilities have experienced more exclusionary practices in educational settings. Given the fast-growing number of students of colour across classrooms in the United States, and approximately 1 in 6 students identified with disabilities in public schools, it is important to pay attention to why exclusionary discipline is disproportionately used at school. Understanding views from different stakeholders on exclusionary practices may help find solutions for remediating such practices for young children of colour with disabilities. Using virtual Learning Labs, this study explored the beliefs and experiences of the exclusionary discipline of five early childhood stakeholders with diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Through qualitative focus group interviews, educational stakeholders highlighted the importance of continued use of humanizing and familiar inclusive disciplinary strategies to support students. Implications for multifaceted practices and research are discussed.

A Feminist Critique of International Practices

Abstract Feminist social theories, especially intersectional and decolonial ones, have been footnotes at best in practice-oriented research in international relations. This disciplinary exclusion of gender studies’ concepts from “international practice theories” (IPTs) or the "practice turn" has marginalized inquiries into power and reflexivity in action. As a result, IPTs have failed to theorize how practitioners’ reflexivity is shaped by local manifestations of systemic lines of difference like race, gender, coloniality, or class. This Theory Note argues that intersectional and decolonial feminist approaches can address this gap. We demonstrate that positionality and privilege condition practical reflexivity by shaping (1) normative interpretations of the world, (2) the content of social critique, and (3) the reception of such critique. Taking feminists as foundational theorists of international practices is critical to addressing some ontological challenges encountered by current IPT scholarship. In this Theory Note, we develop a productive conversation between the two bodies of literature around concepts of background knowledge and competence, which allows for a better understanding of the interplay of structural power and individual reflexivity in everyday interactions.

Racial Bias in School Discipline and Police Contact: Evidence From the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Social Development (ABCD-SD) Study

Black youth are disproportionately exposed to school exclusionary discipline. We examined the impact of race on age at the onset of school disciplinary actions and police contact, and the rate of receiving increasingly severe disciplinary actions. Youth (N= 2,156) and their caregivers participating in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Social Development (ABCD-SD) study reported on the occurrence and timing of disciplinary events and youths' demographics, delinquency, and neighborhood conditions. Experiences of exclusionary discipline were analyzed using logistic regression and Cox proportional hazards models. Black youth reported significantly higher rates of almost all disciplinary events compared to White youth. In logistic regression and Cox models, Black youth experienced higher risk for exclusionary discipline and police contact (odds ratios from 2.47 [detention] to 5.16 [sent home]; hazard ratios from 1.36 [detention] to 4.71 [expelled]), even after adjusting for sex, delinquency, neighborhood conditions, and the interaction between race and sex. Black youth who received detention and suspension were at higher risk for additional, more severe school discipline than were White youth. Consistent with a racial bias in exclusionary discipline practices and policing, Black youth, particularly Black male youth, were at a higher risk for experiencing almost all disciplinary outcomes and at younger ages than White youth, after controlling for delinquency, sex, and neighborhood factors. Compared to White students, school detention and suspension status predicted an accelerated cascade of school discipline outcomes for Black students, suggesting racial disparities in how the severity of school discipline escalates over time. We worked to ensure that the study questionnaires were prepared in an inclusive way. One or more of the authors of this paper self-identifies as a member of one or more historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science. We actively worked to promote inclusion of historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science in our author group. While citing references scientifically relevant for this work, we also actively worked to promote sex and gender balance in our reference list. While citing references scientifically relevant for this work, we also actively worked to promote inclusion of historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science in our reference list.