Excellent Catalytic Activity Research Articles

Improving SO2 Tolerance and Low-Temperature Denitrification Performance in NH3-SCR Catalysis: A Comprehensive Study on Nb and Mn Modified CeO2 Catalysts

In pursuit of improving the performance of MnCe-based catalysts in NH3-assisted selective catalytic reduction (NH3-SCR) of NOx technology, particularly their SO2 resistance and low-temperature activity, a series of NbMnCeOx catalysts were synthesized. Results reveal that the Nb0.1Mn2Ce5Ox catalyst provides the most excellent SO2 resistance and SCR catalytic activity. Incorporating Nb into the MnCeOx structure enriches the formation of additional chemisorbed oxygen species and surface acidity, promoting NO2 production while effectively preventing the over-oxidation of NH3 to produce N2O. The incorporation of Nb and Mn into CeO2 improves the content of Brønsted- and Lewis-acid sites, facilitating the NH3 capture and NH4+ generation, thus enabling the NH3-SCR process via both Eley-Rideal (E-R, Mechanism S1) and Langmuir-Hinshelwood (L-H, Mechanism S2) mechanisms, with the latter dominating at low temperatures. Nb doping considerably reduces the sulfate formation and the initial SO2 adsorption on the NbMnCeOx surface, while decreasing the average oxidation state of Mn and shielding it from electronic attack from S4+ in SO2. This study highlights the synergistic effect of Nb and Mn in bolstering acidic sites in CeO2-based catalysts and proposes the reaction mechanisms for improving the low-temperature and sulfur-resistant NH3-SCR performance.

Efficient lignin hydrogenolysis over N-doped macroporous carbon supported Ru catalyst

To cope with the challenge of insufficient interaction between lignin macromolecules and catalytic active sites in heterocatalysis systems which hindered the efficient hydrogenolysis of lignin, a lignin-derived N-doped macroporous carbon supported Ru catalyst (Ru/LNPC) was prepared via the pyrolysis of alkali lignin with potassium hydroxide as the activator and ammonium oxalate as the pore forming agent. The LNPC carrier featured a hierarchical porous structure with the diameter of macropores ranging from 50 nm to 10 μm, enhancing the adequately contact between the lignin macromolecules and Ru NPs. The doping nitrogen in the carbon carrier led to well dispersed Ru nanoparticles with average size of 1.08 nm, providing abundant active metallic centers. Therefore, Ru/LNPC exhibited excellent catalytic activity and stability to hydrogenolysis of lignin. Under the condition of 1.0 MPa H2 at 280 ºC for 2 h, Ru/LNPC contributed to the yield of 45.6 % aromatic monomers from the depolymerization of lignin. After five recycling, Ru/LNPC still showed significant activity. This work provided a new strategy for designing catalysts for efficient hydrogenolysis of lignin and further facilitating its high-value utilization.

Mixed Carboxylate Ligands Bridging Tetra-Pr3+-Encapsulated Antimonotungstate: Syntheses, Structure, and Catalytic Activity for Imidazoles Synthesis.

Multinuclear Pr-containing antimonotungstate [Pr4(H2O)10W6O13(mal)2(OAc)(B-α-SbW9O33)4]21- (Pr-1, mal = malate anion, OAc = acetate anion), bridged by organic carboxylic acid, was synthesized through a one-pot assembly reaction and structurally characterized. Pr-1 is composed of four [B-α-SbW9O33]9- fragments fused together by an organic-inorganic hybrid central [Pr4(H2O)10W6O13(mal)2(OAc)]15+ cluster core through 24 μ2-O atoms. Notably, the central cluster comprises unprecedented decanuclear Pr4(H2O)10W6O13 jointly decorated by two types of carboxylic acid ligands. This integration of rare earth-containing antimonotungstate with mixed organic carboxylate ligands is very rare in POMs chemistry. Pr-1 exhibits excellent catalytic activity in the cyclo-condensation reaction involving benzil, aldehyde, and NH4OAc. A series of 2,4,5-trisubstituted imidazoles were synthesized in remarkable yields using iPrOH as a green solvent.

Solvent Free Ambient Pressure CO2 Cycloaddition Catalyzed by Cobalt-Impregnated 2D-Nanofibrous COFs.

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) constitute an evolving class of permanently porous and ordered materials, and they have recently attracted increased interest due to their intriguing morphological features and numerous applications in gas storage, adsorption, and catalysis. However, their low aqueous stabilities and tedious syntheses generally hamper their use in heterogeneous catalysis. Nonetheless, a capable and water-stable heterogeneous catalytic system for coupling CO2/epoxides to generate industrially important cyclic carbonates is still of great interest. Herein, exceedingly water- and thermally stable 2D-cobalt-impregnated hydrazone-linked fibrous COFs are reported as a catalyst for CO2/epoxide coupling reactions at ambient pressure. The functionalized cobalt (Co)-doped COFs demonstrated excellent catalytic activities with the high TONs (80925) and TOFs (6466 h-1), outperforming reported heterogeneous catalysts for CO2/epoxide coupling at ambient pressure. We found that the Co2+ ions within the COF matrix catalyze CO2 cycloaddition through density functional theory calculations. We also confirmed the excellent structural stability and consistent activity of Co-doped COFs up to ten repeating cycles.

Polyoxometalates@Metal-Organic Frameworks: Synthesis Strategies, Nanostructure Modulation and Application in Biomass Conversion.

Polyoxometalates@metal-organic frameworks (POMs@MOFs) have attracted much attention as multifunctional materials in biomass catalysis. Individual POMs and MOFs are hindered by their respective defects, such as poor stability and single catalytic active site, which make it difficult to realize large-scale applications. However, the combination of POMs and MOFs can be used to maximize the catalytic advantages of each. MOFs with high specific surface area and rich pore structure can effectively stabilize and uniformly disperse POMs, while the introduction of POMs also provides more catalytic possibilities for POMs@MOFs. Therefore, POMs@MOFs with ultra-high porosity, large specific surface area and excellent acid catalytic activity have unique catalytic advantages in the field of biomass catalytic conversion. In this work, we provide an overview of the current development of POMs@MOFs in the field of biomass catalysis. The synthesis strategies of POMs@MOFs are summarized and discussed, highlighting the in-situ synthesis methods. We focus on the nanostructure engineering of POMs@MOFs, and explore the "structure-property" relationship in depth. In addition, the representative work of POMs@MOFs in the catalysis of biomass derivatives is summarized. Filially, the prospects, and challenges for the future development of POMs@MOFs in the field of biomass catalysis are also presented.

Size-dependent Copper Nanoparticles Supported on Carbon Nanotubes with Balanced Cu+ and Cu0 Dual Sites for the Selective Hydrogenation of Ethylene Carbonate.

Cyclic carbonate hydrogenation offers an alternative for the efficient indirect CO2 utilization. In this study, a series of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) supported xCu/CNTs catalysts with different Cu loadings were fabricated using a convenient impregnation method, and exhibited excellent catalytic activity for the hydrogenation of ethylene carbonate to methanol and ethylene glycol. The structural and physicochemical properties revealed that acid treatment of CNTs resulted in plentiful oxygen-containing functional groups, providing sufficient anchoring sites for copper species. The calcination process conducted under an inert atmosphere resulted in the formation of ternary CuO, Cu2O, and Cu composites, enhancing the metal-support interaction and facilitating the formation of balanced Cu0 and Cu+ dual sites as well as high active surface area after reduction. Contributed to the synergetic effect of balanced Cu+ and Cu0 species proved by density functional theory calculation and the electron-rich CNTs surface, the 40Cu/CNTs catalyst achieved strengthened catalytic performance with methanol yield of 83%, ethylene glycol yield of 99% at ethylene carbonate conversion of >99%, and 150 h of long-term running stability. Consequently, CNTs supported Cu serve as efficient non-silica based catalyst for ester hydrogenation.

Innovative COF@MXene composites for high performance energy applications

AbstractAs a new type of composite two-dimensional material formed by the combination of Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) and two- dimensional (2D) MXenes, COF/MXene heterostructures (COF@MXene) inherit the stable porous two-dimensional structure of COFs and the excellent electrochemical performance and catalytic activity of MXenes, thus attracting widespread attention. Additionally, COF@MXene possesses various elemental affinity sites, efficient ion channels, and the ability to append various functional groups, which endow them with tremendous potential in electrochemical energy storage, energy conversion, and catalysis. Currently, there is a lack of extensive literature discussing the utilization of COF@MXene. The quest for enhanced physicochemical attributes through tailored modifications and composite strategies for COF@MXene is still a noteworthy hurdle. Furthermore, discovering novel application contexts that can harness the exceptional capabilities of these materials presents a formidable task. This review initiates with an exploration of the primary methodologies for synthesizing COF and MXene composites. Subsequently, it outlines the diverse applications of COF and MXene in energy storage, energy conversion, and environmental conservation. Lastly, it discusses the primary obstacles and future trajectories within these domains.

An Enzyme-Free Impedimetric Sensor Based on Flower-like NiO/Carbon Microspheres for L-Glutamic Acid Assay

This research introduces a non-enzymatic electrochemical sensor utilizing flower-like nickel oxide/carbon (fl-NiO/C) microspheres for the precise detection of L-glutamic acid (LGA), a crucial neurotransmitter in the field of healthcare and a frequently utilized food additive and flavor enhancer. The fl-NiO/C were synthesized with controllable microstructures using metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) as precursors followed by a simple calcination process. The uniformly synthesized fl-NiO/C microspheres were further characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). The fl-NiO/C was utilized as a modifier on the surface of a glassy carbon electrode, and an impedimetric sensor based on electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was developed for the detection of LGA. The proposed sensor demonstrated excellent catalytic activity and selectivity towards LGA across a broad concentration range of 10–800 μM with a sensitivity of 486.9 µA.mM−1.cm−2 and a detection limit of 1.28 µM (S/N = 3). The sensor was also employed to identify LGA in blood plasma samples, yielding results that align with those obtained through HPLC. This achievement highlights the potential of fl-NiO/C microspheres in advancing cutting-edge biosensing applications.

Fenton-Inactive Cd Enables Highly Selective O2-Derived Domino Reaction.

Advancing and deploying Fenton-inactive Cd that combines excellent catalytic activity, selectivity, and stability remains a serious challenge, predominantly owing to the difficulty in regulating the intrinsic electronic states and local geometric structures of such fully occupied d10s2 configuration. In this work, a combination of experiments and theoretical calculations reveals that the incorporation of boron (B) enables the tuning of the average oxidation state of Cd0 to Cdδ+, facilitating electron localization and implementing a different electrocatalytic preference compared to conventional d10-electron configurations. The resulting Cd(B) catalyst demonstrates high selectivity (>90% on average) in the O2-to-H2O2 conversion, negligible activity loss over 100h, and a superior H2O2 production rate (15.5mol∙gcat -1h-1 at -100mA). More unexpectedly, the in situ generated H2O2 exhibits a unique advantage over commercial products, selectively oxidizing cinnamaldehyde to benzaldehyde by modulating the practical current.

Sustainable Synthesis of D‐Glucose Based IL: A Renewable Organo Catalyst for the Efficient Synthesis of Dihydropyrano Coumarins

AbstractA convenient, direct, one‐pot highly efficient microwave‐assisted synthesis of biomass‐derived D‐glucose‐based hydroxide ionic liquid via a simple three‐step approach has been described. The key features of the method include rapidness, eco‐friendliness, and excellent yields. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first methodology for synthesizing D‐Glucose‐based sugar ionic liquid (GSIL) under microwave irradiation. The developed catalyst allowed us to synthesize diverse dihydropyrano[3,2‐c]‐chromenes upto 95 % yield in 30‐90 min stirring at 80 °C under mild conditions. The scope of the study was investigated using 30 instances. Developed GSIL exhibited excellent catalytic activity as well as good recyclability. Overall, the catalyst showed excellent value in green chemistry parameters such as atom economy (95 %), E‐factor (0.05), carbon efficiency (100 %), process mass intensity (1.62), and reaction mass efficiency (0.860).

High-entropy perovskite (Pr1/6Nd1/6Sm1/6Ba1/6Sr1/6)6/7(Mn1/6Co)6/7O3-δ as a highly active and CO2 durable cathode for solid oxide fuel cells

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are environmentally friendly energy conversion devices that convert the chemical energy in fuels directly into electrical power. The development of high-catalytic activity and durability cathode materials is crucial for the commercialization of SOFCs. Herein, a novel A-site deficient high-entropy perovskite oxide (Pr1/6Nd1/6Sm1/6Ba1/6Sr1/6)6/7(Mn1/6Co)6/7O3-δ (PNSBSMC) was designed. The strong disorder effect associated with entropy increase in high-entropy perovskite oxide is anticipated to accelerate oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) kinetics. PNSBSMC demonstrates excellent catalytic activity for oxygen reduction, primarily due to the entropy-driven enhancement that promotes oxygen adsorption, dissociation, and charge transfer dynamics. The increase in entropy not only significantly mitigates the thermal expansion of PNSBSMC but also provides additional pathways for ionic/electronic transport. At 800 °C, the PNSBSMC-based single cell achieved a remarkable peak power density of 1.41 W cm−2, representing an 88.0 % improvement over the single-phase PBC. Additionally, PNSBSMC demonstrates superior performance stability and CO2 tolerance. These findings suggest that high-entropy PNSBSMC perovskite holds significant potential as an effective cathode for SOFCs. This study offers new insights for the future development of high-stability, high-activity SOFC cathode materials.

Recycled industrial waste silicon steel as high-performance electrode for oxygen evolution reaction using electroless plating surface modification

Exploring the large-area, cost-effective, and high-performance electrocatalyticoxygen evolution reaction (OER) electrode for water splitting is of great significance. Inspiring from the ‘waste to resource’ toward the circular economy, herein, the waste silicon steels (SS) were transformed into high-performance CoxFe3-xP/SS OER electrode through a facile electroless plating method. The plating layer of CoxFe3-xP not only endows the CoxFe3-xP/SS with outstanding electrocatalytic OER activity but also improves the corrosion resistance and stability of CoxFe3-xP/SS. The obtained Co2Fe1P/SS electrode exhibits the lowest overpotential of 244 mV at a current density of 10 mA/cm2 in 1 M KOH with a low Tafel slope of 48.7 mV/dec. Even at high current densities and in 6 M KOH and alkaline seawater (seawater + 1 M KOH), the Co2Fe1P/SS electrode also shows relatively low overpotentials, as well as high long-term durability. Specially, a large-area Co2Fe1P/SS OER electrode(40 × 40 cm2)was successfully prepared via the electroless plating approach. Toward the CoxFe3-xP/SS, the bimetallic Co-Fe synergies and phosphating effect promote the exposure of active sites and charge transfer. In addition, generated M(OH)x/MOOH (M = Co or Fe) species during OER activation could synergize with CoxFe3-xP and contribute excellent catalytic activity and stability.

Heterointerfacial engineering of N,P-doped carbon nanosheets supported Co/Co2P nanoparticles for boosting oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution reactions towards rechargeable Zn-air battery

Transition metal phosphides (TMPs) with high electrocatalytic activity for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) are reckoned as a substitution of precious group metals catalysts in rechargeable Zn-air battery. In this work, Co/Co2P heterojunction nanoparticles supported N,P-doped carbon nanosheets (Co/Co2P@NPCNS) were designed and prepared via a facile one-step molten salt-assisted pyrolysis process. Density function theory calculations reveal that the heterogeneous interactions of Co/Co2P effectively enhance the bifunctional electrocatalytic activity for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and OER. The synergistic interaction between the Co/Co2P heterojunction nanoparticles with highly exposed active sites and excellent catalytic activity and the two-dimensional doped carbon nanosheets with high conductivity contributes to Co/Co2P@NPCNS exhibiting preeminent bifunctional ORR/OER activity and stability with a high half-wave potential for ORR (0.87 V), a low overpotential for OER (302 mV at 10 mA cm−2) and a low potential gap (0.66 V). The homemade rechargeable Zn-air battery performs high peak power density (187 mW cm−2) and exceptional endurance. This heterogeneous interface tactic of integrating TMPs with heteroatom-doped carbon materials may shed light on the research and development of non-precious metal electrocatalysts.

Preparation of high performance CoCuAl@SiC catalytic ceramic membrane for nonradical degradation of sulfamethoxazole

Catalytic ceramic membranes (CCM) featuring catalytic and separating functions, show huge potential in water treatment. Nevertheless, the inability of catalytic ceramic membrane with high catalytic performance to be produced by current fabrication method are the bottleneck preventing their applications. Herein, the high performance CoCuAl@SiC CCM were successfully prepared by coating Al gel interlayer, hydrothermal reaction and annealing in reductive atmosphere. Annealing in reductive atmosphere play key role in enhancing the catalytic property of CoCuAl@SiC CCM. 99.3 % sulfamethoxazole (10 mg·L−1) degraded by CoCuAl@SiC CCM annealing at 300 °C and 0.5 mM PMS in 1 min under a wide pH range of 3.5–11.0 and in the presence of anions. Quenching tests confirmed the dominant role of singlet oxygen (1O2) in SMX degradation. The abundant oxygen vacancies and redox cycles of Co3+/Co2+ and Co2+/Co0 on CoCuAl@SiC CCM are crucial for PMS activation. In addition, the SMX degradation pathways were found to comprise deamination, hydroxylation, and ring open according to the degradation intermediates of SMX. This study not only provides an approach for the preparation of catalytic membranes with excellent catalytic activity, but also sheds a novel insight into the indispensable role of oxygen vacancy.

Cu-UiO-66 Catalyzed Synthesis of Imines via Acceptorless Dehydrogenative Coupling of Alcohols and Amines.

Herein, the Cu-UiO-66 catalyst was developed for acceptorless dehydrogenative coupling (ADC) between alcohols and amines to produce imines. The Cu-UiO-66 catalyst was synthesized by installing Cu2+ onto Zr-oxo clusters in UiO-66, and the catalyst efficiently catalyzes the ADC reaction under mild and environmentally friendly conditions with excellent selectivity. Mechanistic studies reveal that the O2·- radicals and porosity of formed in Cu-UiO-66 participate cooperatively during the catalytic cycle. Meanwhile, the only by-product of the system is environmentally benign water. Cycling tests and hot filtration tests showed that the Cu-UiO-66 catalyst exhibited excellent stability and catalytic activity during the reaction. Importantly, the Cu-UiO-66 catalyst might provide a promising strategy for the ADC reaction between alcohols and amines to produce imines.

In Situ Stabilization of Bi Nanoparticles into the Nanopores of Modified Montmorillonite: Efficient Heterogeneous Catalysts for Reduction of 4-Nitrophenol.

Here, we report the in situ generation of Bi nanoparticles (BiNPs) into a nanoporous matrix by impregnation of bismuth chloride and subsequent reduction with sodium borohydride. The nanoporous matrix was created by acid activation of natural montmorillonite clay under controlled conditions with the aim that it may serve as a host for BiNPs. The characterization of stabilized BiNPs was done by using Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR), powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and field emission scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray (FESEM-EDX) techniques. The TEM study reveals that the BiNPs with an average particle size of 7.16 nm are well-distributed on the surface of the acid-activated montmorillonite clay. The synthesized BiNPs exhibited excellent catalytic activity for the degradation of 4-nitrophenol (4-NP) in aqueous medium with remarkable results. The degradation of 4-NP to 4-aminophenol (4-AP) at 25 °C, in the presence of sodium borohydride, brought about almost 100% conversion in 6 min with a rate constant of 0.20098 s-1 that follows the pseudo-first-order kinetics.

Visible light-driven aerobic oxidation of amines coupling with H2O2 production catalyzed by CoPc/alkali metal-doped g-C3N4 Z-scheme heterojunction

Three environmentally friendly Z-scheme CoPc/alkali metal-doped g-C3N4 heterojunction composites were fabricated via in-situ immobilizing cobalt phthalocyanine (CoPc) on the surface of alkali metal-doped g-C3N4 nanosheet by simple hydrothermal method. These composites acted as efficient and recyclable heterogeneous photocatalysts realized that the highly selective aerobic oxidation of amines to the corresponding imines coupling of hydrogen peroxide generation at room temperature. Under irradiation by LED lamp, the imines and H2O2 were obtained with conversion ranges from 87.9 % to 92.0 %, selectivity more than 99 %, and production rate ranges from 3.27 to 3.40 mmol g−1 h−1, respectively. Based on the mechanistic analysis and characterization, the excellent catalytic activity derived from the Z-scheme mechanic and synergistic effect originated from O2 reduction and amine oxidation. On completion, after centrifugation, washing with solvent and drying under vacuum, the catalysts can be recovered and reused for five successive cycles of testing with a slight decrease in reactivity. For this work, a promising photo synthesis pathway with merits of mild, low-cost, pollution-free, and energy-saving was developed to produce imines coupling with H2O2 generation.

One-pot synthesis of copper phthalocyanine polymer: An efficient CO2 fixation catalyst

The chemical transformation of CO2 into high-value-added products is not only favourable to environmental preservation, but also promising for economy. Developing novel and practical catalysts play a critical role in facilitating conversion of CO2 and the synthesis of high value-added chemicals. Herein, we present the fabrication of biphenyl-typed copper phthalocyanine polymer (BPh-CuPc) from 4,4’-bis(3,4-dicyanophenoxy)biphenyl via a one-pot synthesis procedure, and application of it as a promising catalyst for CO2 conversion into cyclocarbonate. FTIR, XPS, UV–vis, TGA and SEM measurements confirm the successful fabrication of BPh-CuPc. Attributing to the existence of copper ions which can act as a Lewis acid to activate epoxide, and phthalocyanine rings that is positive for CO2 absorption, within the chemical framework of BPh-CuPc, it exhibits excellent catalytic activity for CO2 conversion into cyclic carbonates under mild conditions when combined with tetrabutylammonium iodide (TBAI). As a result, a 98 % yield and 99 % selectivity are obtained for the BPh-CuPc/TBAI system in CO2/propylene oxide conversion under condition of 90 °C, 8 h and 2.0 MPa. The obtained high yield and selectivity, as well as remarkable stability and versatility, validate the promising application of BPh-CuPc as a CO2 conversion catalyst. SynopsisAttributing to the existence of copper ions and phthalocyanine rings within the chemical framework, BPh-CuPc exhibits excellent catalytic activity for CO2 conversion into cyclic carbonates under mild conditions.

Synthesis of NaLTA zeolite confined CuO catalysts and superior catalytic properties for alkene epoxidation with H2O2 as oxidant

The NaLTA zeolite confined CuO catalyst CuO@NaLTA was prepared via the method of ligand protected in situ with Cu2+-glycine complex as Cu source, and characterized by multiple characteristic techniques. The results revealed that CuO nanoparticles were highly dispersed on NaLTA zeolite, and the catalytic properties of CuO@NaLTA were investigated in the alkene epoxidation with H2O2 as oxidant in dioxane. For styrene oxidation, catalyst CuO@NaLTA exhibited excellent catalytic activities with 83 % conversion and 63 % selectivity to styrene epoxide, and could be easily recycled several times without obvious activity loss. The excellent catalytic activities could be attributed to the highly dispersed active CuO species. Besides, multiple electronic effects and coordinative interactions exited in Cu ion and the Si-Al zeolite skeleton framework played a key role in the catalytic recyclability.

Spontaneous built-in electric field in W-W2C@C heterostructure: Accelerating Sn2- directed migration in Li-S batteries

The commercialization of Li-S batteries is severely hindered by shuttle effect and sluggish redox reaction kinetics of LiPSs. Heterostructure can resolve the above shortcomings through the synergistic effect of adsorption and catalysis. However, long-chain LiPSs dissolving in electrolyte tend to cluster, resulting in low sulfur utilization and preventing kinetic conversion Thus, it is necessary to regulate the diffusion of Sn2− to achieve the directional diffusion from adsorbent to catalyst. Nevertheless, the design principle has not yet been clarified. W-W2C@C heterostructure with W of strong adsorption ability and high work function and W2C of excellent catalytic activity and low work function is designed by theoretical screening. Due to work function difference, this heterostructure controls the direction of the interface built-in electric field (BIEF), realizing the directional migration process of Sn2− from adsorptive W to catalytic W2C, thereby achieving a continuous “trapping-directional migration-conversion” reaction mechanism. The batteries have an excellent Li+ diffusion rate, high initial discharge specific capacity (1400.6 mAh/g at 0.2C), excellent rate capability (853.2 mAh/g at 2C), high reversible capacity (977.9 mAh/g after 150 cycles at 0.2C) and an extremely low capacity decay rate of 0.09 % per cycle after 300 cycles at 1C.