Ex Situ Research Articles

Pollen Interference Between Rare and Common Species.

The mechanisms underlying plant species distribution and abundance have been long studied in ecology. However, the role of heterospecific pollen interference in shaping these patterns needs more attention. Species distribution and abundance are important factors determining whether a species is endangered or not; thus, understanding the impact of heterospecific pollen interference on rare species could help to inform conservation strategies aimed at preserving plant communities. In this study, we conducted a multispecies experiment using eight co-occurring and co-flowering plant species with varying rarity levels in Switzerland. We performed cross-pollinations by hand between nearly all species pairs and measured seed set (whether a flower produces seed) and seed number (number of seeds per flower) as outcomes. We looked at the effects of rarity status, self-compatibility, and recipient-donor relatedness on heterospecific pollen interference. Contrary to expectations, neither seed set nor seed number were affected by heterospecific pollen deposition. Self-compatible species had a higher seed set probability, but this was independent from species rarity. In our study setting, heterospecific pollen interference seems to have only minor effects on seed set and seed number, and consequently on recruitment. Thus, heterospecific pollen interference seems to play only a minor role in shaping plant species distribution and abundance. Nevertheless, the higher impact of heterospecific pollen deposition on rare and closely related species, as well as the importance of conspecific pollen loss, might need further investigation for both insitu and ex-situ conservation strategies.

Exploration of the ecology and ex-situ conservation of Betula utilis D. Don: Insights from topography, edaphic factors, and nursery management practices

Exploration of the ecology and ex-situ conservation of Betula utilis D. Don: Insights from topography, edaphic factors, and nursery management practices

Coleus hakgalensis (Lamiaceae), a new species from Sri Lanka

Coleus hakgalensis, a new species in family Lamiaceae, is described from the central highlands of Sri Lanka. The dry specimens of the new species are morphologically similar to Coleus paniculatus specimens but distinguishable by its much branched habit with arcuate branches, stem up to 1m in height, elongated inflorescence, bracts being occasionally persistent and shortly petiolated, having hairs inside the upper lip of calyx, semi-circular lateral lobes of upper lip of corolla being much shorter than median lobes, navicular lower lip of corolla with densely pilose inside, stamens united at base and anterior projection of the disc equal or shorter than ovary with an acute apex. The new species is under high risk of extinction in the wild thus ex-situ conservation measures have been implemented.

Historical Background, Origin, Distribution & Present Status of Wood Apple

Wood apple (Feronia limonia L.; Rutaceae family) commonly known as poor man’s fruit in India due to its several nutraceutical importance, is native to South India and Sri Lanka. Sanskrit term, “kapittha,” receives several mentions in a number of ancient texts including “Hinduism: an Alphabetical Guide”. Buddhist scholar mentioned wood apple as an Indian fruit while, military commander and poet Chauvundaraya (940-989AD) listed wood apple in numerous medicinal remedies and also mentioned in Charak Samhita and Sushruta Samhita. Wood apple has been planted extensively or being allowed to grow naturally in the reserved forests throughout Southeast Asia, Northern Malaysia and on Penang Island. In India, it is more common in Deccan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Chhatishgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Odisha, however, no data is available for its area and production. Unfortunately, the lack of attention has meant that their potential value is under-exploited and they are in danger of continued genetic erosion, ultimately leading to disappearance. Therefore, it is necessary to spread the awareness of its importance among common people and researches to identify superior genotypes, production problems of wood apple for their ex-situ collection, conservation, evaluation and utilization that is being explained by this study after having various literatures available in different forms from different sources. This review article will help future researchers to conserve as well as explore the possible benefits of this crop to the common people harnessing societal value of growers.

Outlook on nutritional importance and breeding strategies for oil and quality improvement in sesame (Sesamum indicum L.)

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), is a pivotal crop in global agriculture due to its high oil content (50-60 %), rich in quality unsaturated fatty acids and an array of bioactive compounds like sesamin and sesamol. This review is a compilation of information on sesame nutrition, mechanism of action of bioactive principles, health benefits in terms of unsaturated fats, antioxidants and essential nutrients to combat health disorders. The genetic resources are the base for any crop improvement programs. The genetic wealth of this crop as ex-situ conservation world-wide, traits of importance from its wild relatives, studies on genetic diversity through agronomic and molecular techniques for quality traits are focused. Both conventional and molecular breeding methods are examined. Conventional breeding efforts covers trait variability, correlations, gene action, combining ability studies, breeding methods and varieties released. The insights into molecular biology probes the novel QTLs, discovery of candidate genes, molecular markers for quality traits, genome sequencing, advancements in gene expression studies, genetic maps and pangemone. Despite the significant progress, the lacuna and future prospects in these areas are highlighted. Integrating the information from modern genomic technologies with conventional methods is the key to maximize the crop's potential for oil and nutritional security.

Proteomic analysis of giant panda testicular tissue of different age groups

Background The reproductive ability of male giant pandas has been a major complicating factor in the ex-situ conservation of the species. While it is well known that the testis produces sperm and secretes androgens, a process that requires precise regulation of various proteins, at present, there has been no systematic study on the composition of proteins in the testis of the giant pandas. Therefore, this study aims to apply proteomics to explore the regulation of proteins in the testes of giant pandas. Methods Samples from the testes of three giant pandas (22 years, 18 years, 8 days) were studied to assess the protein’s function. A label-free quantitative method was used to isolate testicular proteins from each male, 139,039 peptides and 11,435 proteins were obtained. Results Gene Ontology (GO) annotates most of the proteins involved in the processes of protein phosphorylation, oxidation-reduction, proteolysis, and signal transduction. KEGG pathway indicated that most of the proteins were involved in the pathway of signal transduction, transport, and catabolism. The protein kinase and WD40 repeats were involved in protein-protein interaction, which in turn regulates gene expression in the testicular tissue of giant pandas. Conclusions This study is the first to conduct an in-depth proteomic analysis of testicular tissue in giant pandas. The results revealed the important role of proteins in testicular tissue on spermatogenesis, testosterone production, and testicular microenvironment, providing clues for further research on male giant panda reproduction.

PPDC: An online platform for the prediction of plant distributions in China

Abstract The survival and reproduction of plants in a particular region are closely related to the local ecological niche. The use of species distribution models based on the ecological niche concept to predict potential distributions can effectively guide the protection of endangered plants, prevention and control of invasive plants, and plant introduction and ex-situ conservation. However, traditional methods and processes for predicting potential distributions of plants are tedious and complex, requiring the collection and processing of large amounts of data and the manual operation of multiple tools. Therefore, it is difficult to achieve large-scale prediction of the potential distributions of plants. To address these limitations, by collecting and organizing a large amount of basic data, occurrence records, and environmental data and integrating species distribution models and mapping techniques, a workflow to automatically predict the potential distributions of Chinese plants was established, thus the innovative work of predicting the potential distributions of 32,000 species of plants in China was completed. Furthermore, an online platform for predicting plant distributions in China (PPDC) based on visualization technology was developed, providing a basis for sharing the prediction results across a wide range of scientists and technologists. Users can quickly access information about the potential distributions of plants in China, providing a reference for the collection, preservation, and protection of plant resources. In addition, users can quickly predict the potential distribution of a certain plant in a certain region in China according to specific needs, thus providing technical support for research and a basis for biodiversity conservation.

Ex-Situ conservation practices for some endangered plants in Ankara, Türkiye

Within the scope of this study, activities were carried out to ensure ex-situ conservation of 12 taxa, distributed Ayaş, Beypazarı and Nallıhan districts in Ankara province, in the collection garden established by the National Botanical Garden of Türkiye and to raise awareness. With this study, which includes a part of the project supported by the General Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policies with the number TAGEM/BBAD/B/20/A7/P9/1820, the habitat characteristics of 12 taxa namely Achillea ketenoglui, Aethionema dumanii, Aethionema turcica, Astragalus densifolius subsp. ayashensis, Astragalus beypazaricus, Astragalus yildirimlii, Asyneuma linifolium subsp. nallihanicum, Campanula damboldtiana, Cytisus acutangulus, Salsola grandis, Salvia aytachii and Verbascum gypsicola, were recorded and analyzes were carried out using Geographic Information Systems. In line with the analyses, the most suitable place to establish an Endemic Plants Collection Garden within the borders of the National Botanical Garden of Türkiye was selected. Among the taxa studied, 7 propagated species were adapted and protected in the collection garden. Thus, an important example study has been presented for the conservation of endangered taxa, which is one of the missions of botanical gardens.

Genome-wide association study of cassava brown streak disease resistance in cassava germplasm conserved in South America

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a vital carbohydrate source for over 800 million people globally, yet its production in East Africa is severely affected by cassava brown streak disease (CBSD). Genebanks, through ex-situ conservation, play a pivotal role in preserving crop diversity, providing crucial resources for breeding resilient and disease-resistant crops. This study genotyped 234 South American cassava accessions conserved at the CIAT genebank, previously phenotyped for CBSD resistance by an independent group, to perform a genome-wide association analysis (GWAS) to identify genetic variants associated with CBSD resistance. Our GWAS identified 35 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers distributed across various chromosomes, associated with disease severity or the presence/absence of viral infection. Markers were annotated within or near genes previously identified with functions related to pathogen recognition and immune response activation. Using the SNP candidates, we screened the world’s largest cassava collection for accessions with a higher frequency of favorable genotypes, proposing 35 accessions with potential resistance to CBSD. Our results provide insights into the genetics of CBSD resistance and highlight the importance of genetic resources to equip breeders with the raw materials needed to develop new crop varieties resistant to pests and diseases.

Bending the curve of global freshwater biodiversity loss: what are the prospects?

Freshwater biodiversity conservation has received substantial attention in the scientific literature and is finally being recognized in policy frameworks such as the Global Biodiversity Framework and its associated targets for 2030. This is important progress. Nonetheless, freshwater species continue to be confronted with high levels of imperilment and widespread ecosystem degradation. An Emergency Recovery Plan (ERP) proposed in 2020 comprises six measures intended to "bend the curve" of freshwater biodiversity loss, if they are widely adopted and adequately supported. We review evidence suggesting that the combined intensity of persistent and emerging threats to freshwater biodiversity has become so serious that current and projected efforts to preserve, protect and restore inland-water ecosystems may be insufficient to avert substantial biodiversity losses in the coming decades. In particular, climate change, with its complex and harmful impacts, will frustrate attempts to prevent biodiversity losses from freshwater ecosystems already affected by multiple threats. Interactions among these threats will limit recovery of populations and exacerbate declines resulting in local or even global extinctions, especially among low-viability populations in degraded or fragmented ecosystems. In addition to impediments represented by climate change, we identify several other areas where the absolute scarcity of fresh water, inadequate scientific information or predictive capacity, and a widespread failure to mitigate anthropogenic stressors, are liable to set limits on the recovery of freshwater biodiversity. Implementation of the ERP rapidly and at scale through many widely dispersed local actions focused on regions of high freshwater biodiversity and intense threat, together with an intensification of ex-situ conservation efforts, will be necessary to preserve native freshwater biodiversity during an increasingly uncertain climatic future in which poorly understood, emergent and interacting threats have become more influential. But implementation of the ERP must be accompanied by measures that will improve water, energy and food security for humans - without further compromising the condition of freshwater ecosystems. Unfortunately, the inadequate political implementation of policies to arrest widely recognized environmental challenges such as climate change do not inspire confidence about the possible success of the ERP. In many parts of the world, the Anthropocene future seems certain to include extended periods with an absolute scarcity of uncontaminated surface runoff that will inevitably be appropriated by humans. Unless there is a step-change in societal awareness of - and commitment to - the conservation of freshwater biodiversity, together with necessary actions to arrest climate change, implementation of established methods for protecting freshwater biodiversity may not bend the curve enough to prevent continued ecosystem degradation and species loss.

Effects of Social Group Housing on the Behavioral and Physiological Responses of Captive Sub-Adult Giant Pandas.

Wild giant pandas are inherently solitary creatures, however, the ex-situ conservation efforts significantly alter the living circumstances of their captive counterparts. Following the breeding period, giant pandas in captivity may be maintained in social groups. Currently, there is a lack of research on the effects of group housing on the physiology, behavior, and gut microbiota of captive giant pandas. This study divided six captive giant pandas into two groups following the breeding period. By comparing the behavior, physiology, and microorganisms of the two groups, we aim to investigate the behavioral responses and physiological adaptation mechanisms exhibited by captive giant pandas in a "group living" state. Our findings indicate that sub-adult giant pandas housed in group settings exhibit a significantly longer duration of playing behavior (including interactive and non-interactive play) compared to their counterparts housed separately (p < 0.001) while also demonstrating a significantly lower duration of stereotyped behavior than their separately housed counterparts. Additionally, an analysis of urine cortisol and heart rate variability between the two groups revealed no significant differences. Simultaneously, the group housing strategy markedly elevated the β diversity of gut microbiota in sub-adult giant pandas. In conclusion, the group-rearing model during the sub-adult stage has been shown to significantly alter the behavioral patterns of captive giant pandas. In conclusion, within the present captive setting, the group-rearing approach during the sub-adult stage proved to be less distressing for adult captive giant pandas.

Management lessons from a long‐term captive‐breeding program for a critically endangered species, Leadbeater's possum, Gymnobelideus leadbeateri

AbstractLeadbeater's possums (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri) are a critically endangered marsupial found in a restricted area of cold, wet forest in South‐Eastern Australia. The majority of Leadbeater's possums inhabit highland forest, with one outlying lowland population. In 2012, a breeding program was established for the lowland Leadbeater's possums when this genetically distinct population faced imminent extinction. Successful reproduction by highland Leadbeater's possums in the international zoo‐based population between 1970 and 2010 led to the widespread belief that the species bred readily in captivity. Lowland possums have not bred in the 2012–2021 contemporary captive conservation breeding program. This study reviewed the historic captive‐breeding data and found that of the 84% (162/194) that reached reproductive maturity; 37% of males (n = 30) and 39.5% of females (n = 32) bred, and this success was highly skewed towards a subset of highly fecund individuals (14% of females and 15% of males produced 75% and 80% of all offspring). Although lack of reproductive output in the captive lowland animals could be explained if age at mortality was lower than that of highlands possums, comparison of the longevity of highland and lowland animals had no significant difference. Conservation objectives that specify how captive breeding may support in situ recovery of wild populations are integral to the success of captive programs. A lack of reflective analysis of past husbandry records allowed misconceptions of success and approaches implemented in the management of the breeding program, reducing the benefits for the conservation of this high profile threatened species. This case study provides a lesson for the management of conservation breeding programs and illustrates the importance of well‐defined conservation objectives, integration of in situ and ex situ strategies, and the importance of objective, systematic and timely analysis of available evidence to inform management objectives and improve conservation outcomes in real time.

Seorsus aequatorius (Myrtaceae), a Borneon endemic, rediscovered after 129 years: Conservation implications

Seorsus aequatorius (Myrtaceae), endemic to Borneo, was first described from a single herbarium specimen collected by H. Hallier on Mount Kelam in 1893–1894. However, a minor error in the published collection number of the type specimen for S. aequatorius requires correction. In 2019, during an expedition on Mount Kelam, Dr. Muhammad Mansur and his colleagues rediscovered S. aequatorius (locally known as ‘pohon embun’). This research aimed to correct information on the collection number of the type specimen, conduct a conservation assessment, and propose conservation strategies. The study involved examining herbarium specimens. The conservation status of the species was evaluated using IUCN guidelines. We outline the rediscovery of S. aequatorius after 129 years. The correct type specimen identified as “H. Hallier 2308”. Seorsus aequatorius is preliminarily categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Short-term conservation strategies include ex-situ conservation of S. aequatorius at the Kuningan Botanical Garden in West Java. This is suitable because the species’ habitat, growing on rocks at around 800 m above sea level, matches the theme and elevation of the botanical garden, dedicated to rocky area plants at 490–870 m above sea level. Meanwhile, in-situ conservation strategies for S. aequatorius include conducting population studies, performing habitat rehabilitation or restoration, protecting both habitats and species through legal regulations, and reintroducing seedlings from ex-situ conservation. Designating S. aequatorius as Mount Kelam’s mascot could also raise public awareness.

Visitors Mediated Spatio-Temporal Variation in Noise Pollution of Lahore Zoo and Possible Effects on Animal Behavior

Lahore Zoo is an ex-situ conservation facility housing various indigenous and exotic species of captive wild animals and is a source of gratification for visitors, especially children. The location of Lahore Zoo is very prominent in this regard, making it a most active and accessible tourist/visitor destination. On average working days, around 3000-4000 visitors are recorded in Lahore Zoo, which can shoot up to 20,000 on peak weekends and public holidays. The present investigation was carried out to measure spatial and temporal variation in sound levels (dB (A)) at selected sites, along with on-site behavioral recording of selected animals throughout the week. Spatial analysis (Inverse Distance Weighted -IDW) of recorded sound data was done with ArcGIS 10.5 software. A comprehensive questionnaire was also designed to determine visitors' attitudes toward this issue. Results for sound level reveal that the average sound level was under the WHO limits mostly during weekdays, where the average visitor number ranges from 3838 to 4148. On weekends, it goes from 8950 to 19154 visitors with loud noise recorded at most sites. Results from the general ethogram revealed that socially interactive species like monkeys, deer, and bears were more responsive towards visitors, unlike felines (leopard, tiger and lion) which increased their resting period with increased visitor density. Highlighted noisy areas by surveyed visitors were Tiger, Lion, Deer, Monkey, Aquarium, Rhino, Wolf, Cafeteria, Bird section, Ostrich, Camel, Snake House, Zebra, Giraffe, and Bear. To combat this issue, an awareness campaign has been done in the zoo to educate visitors.

Standardized Sperm Cryofreezing Technique for Caspian Sea Sturgeons (Huso huso, Acipenser persicus, Acipenser stellatus, Acipenser nudiventris)

Sturgeons, considered `living fossils,` face extinction due to various factors, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List. The present study describes a uniform sperm cryopreservation method for the endangered Caspian Sea sturgeon species, which are beluga (Huso huso), Persian (Acipenser persicus), stellate (Acipenser stellatus), and ship (Acipenser nudiventris) sturgeons for both artificial reproduction and ex-situ conservation attempts. For this aim, sperm samples were diluted 1:1 in extender composed of 118 mM Tris buffer (pH=8) and 23.4 mM sucrose-based extender containing 15% DMSO and equilibrated for one hour at 4°C. Then, sperm samples were placed into 0.50-ml straws and multi-stage cooling was applied to freeze with the help of a programmable freezer with an accuracy of ±0.1C/min, and finally stored in liquid nitrogen (-196C) tank. Thawing was performed at 40°C water baths for 25 s. The results indicated that storage for two years resulted in a 24.7% fertilization rate for the stellate sturgeon, while the Persian sturgeon had a remarkable rate of 58.2% after five years storage.

Exploring malapari (Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre) from the Eastern part of Indonesia

Abstract Malapari (Pongamia pinnata (L) Pierre) is a plant species widely distributed throughout Indonesia and can be both a renewable energy and medicinal source. Malapari-related research, such as exploration, characterization, seed production capacity, and propagation (both generative and vegetative) has been done in the western part of Indonesia but not in the eastern part. As a result, exploration was carried out in the east part of Indonesia to locate new malapari population. The population’s morphological characters were also examined, and a dendrogram was used to analyze the characters. Plant samples from Bali, the Maluku Islands, and Nusa Tenggara Islands were investigated, characterized, and gathered. The fruits and cuttings (as plant materials) were collected for ex-situ conservation purposes. The natural distribution of malapari in eastern Indonesia are presented, along with their morphological characters and the dendrogram indicating no apparent distinction between them. The conservation and sustainable usage of this plant might benefit from these findings.

Effect of climate change on current and future potential distribution of Strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo L.) in Türkiye

The demand for nontimber forest products (NTFPs) has increased significantly in recent years. Hundreds of plant species that grow naturally in Türkiye have medicinal and aromatic value. Medicinal and aromatic plants are primarily used as a sources of tea, spices, condiments and essential oils. Species belonging to the genus Arbutus L. are used for decorative purposes and as fuel wood in many wood-based industries, they also have a wide range of uses in packaging, chairs making and furniture production. Additionally, the fruits of these trees are widely consumed by humans and animals because they are rich in sugar and vitamin C. It is predicted that changes in climatic conditions will significantly change the distribution, composition and function of forests threatening biodiversity. The purpose of this study was to model current and future potential geographical distributions of Arbutus unedo L., which is among the species that naturally grow in Türkiye and is of substantial value in terms of its ecological contribution to forest ecosystems, based on species presence data and environmental variables (bioclimatic variables and altitude). The current and future distribution area models for Arbutus unedo L. indicate that the potential distribution areas of the species in the coming years will gradually decrease, and in the SSP5 8.5 model, which represents the highest level of world resource usage this gradual decrease will reach its highest level and there will be no suitable distribution area left for the species. Therefore, it is predicted that the species will become endangered. In-situ and ex-situ conservation measures need to be taken to ensure the sustainability of the species in forestry and landscape areas.

Exploring molecular, morphological, and biochemical diversity of Phaeolus vulgaris landraces cultivated in the Aniene Valley (Lazio region, Italy)

The cultivation of common beans has long been integral to rural economies in Italy, particularly in mountainous regions along the Apennine ridge, where the production focuses on local landraces grown by smallholder farmers using low-input methodologies. However, recent socioeconomic changes in rural communities pose a threat of genetic erosion to these landraces. This study examines the genetic diversity, structure, and uniqueness of common bean landraces in the Aniene Valley of the Lazio region to develop preservation strategies. Seventy-three accessions were investigated using morphological (seed traits), biochemical (phaseolin and phytohemagglutinin patterns), and molecular (microsatellite loci) analyses. These analyses revealed significant genetic variability within morphologically uniform seed materials and highlighted cases of homonymy and the inadvertent introduction of foreign genetic material. Among the 292 samples analyzed (four per accession), a clear differentiation between Mesoamerican and Andean gene pools was observed, with the Andean pool being predominant. Despite high levels of homozygosity and uniform seed morphotypes, genetic variability was detected in sixteen of the twenty-one landraces, suggesting that analyzing only a single or few plants per landrace may yield incomplete genetic information. The extensive morphological, biochemical, and genetic characterization of the P. vulgaris collection from the Aniene Valley provides insights for planning effective conservation strategies. These findings emphasize the importance of both in situ/on-farm and ex-situ conservation to preserve the genetic diversity and heritage of these local landraces.

Clonal micropropagation and ex-situ conservation of Rhycncholaelia digbyana (Lindley) Schltr

Objective: To obtain protocols for clonal micropropagation, crop planning, and in vitro conservation of Rhycholaelia digbyana (Lindley) Schltr. Methodology: The effects of the Kundson C basal medium and benzylaminopurine concentration were evaluated for clonal micropropagation. The treatment with the greatest number of shoots formed per apex was selected for crop planning. Experiments were conducted to determine the effect of basal medium Murashige and Skoog concentration at 2.2 gL-1 and 4.4 gL-1; sorbitol, mannitol, and sucrose at 1, 2, and 3% on slow growth. Results: The best treatment for clonal micropropagation and crop planning was identified as 21.60 gL-1 Knudson C with 8.80 µM benzylaminopurine. This treatment resulted in uniform-sized shoots produced. The multiplication process can yield 10,240 seedlings in 12 months. Slow growth was achieved using Murashige and Skoog basal media at 2.2 gL-1 with 1% mannitol. Implications: More experiments must be conducted to determine the best shoot induction conditions and improve resource efficiency. Conclusions: These findings represent the first report on micropropagation and ex-situ conservation to preserve germplasm for this species as an important resource for the floriculture industry.

Ex-situ and in-situ conservation of wild life

Wildlife conservation is essential for maintaining ecological balance, providing economic benefits, supporting scientific research, and preserving cultural heritage. Both in-situ and ex-situ conservation methods are critical for protecting biodiversity and ensuring the sustainable use of natural resources. In-situ conservation allows species to thrive in their natural environments, maintaining ecological interactions and evolutionary processes. It is cost-effective, promotes public participation, and preserves entire ecosystems. However, it requires large areas of land and can be challenging to implement in regions with high human population density. Ex-situ conservation provides an additional layer of protection for species that are critically endangered or whose habitats are severely threatened. Facilities like zoos, botanical gardens, and seed banks play a crucial role in breeding programs, research, and public education. These efforts complement in-situ conservation by serving as reservoirs of genetic diversity and sources for species reintroduction. Together, in-situ and ex-situ conservation strategies form a comprehensive approach to wildlife conservation, ensuring the preservation of biodiversity and the sustainable use of natural resources for future generations. Effective conservation requires coordinated efforts at local, national, and international levels, involving governments, organizations, scientists, and communities in a collective commitment to protecting our planet's natural heritage.