Evolution Of Conspecific Brood Parasitism Research Articles

Ecological correlates of alternative reproductive tactics: conspecific brood parasitism rates vary with nest predation and seasonal effects influenced by climate change

Ecological and social factors shape individual reproductive strategies. Climate change has wide‐ranging effects on the timing of reproduction and availability of nesting sites for many birds. Ecological factors such as season length or predation rate could in turn affect the relative success rates of alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs). A new article by Pöysä (2024) featuring a long‐term study of common goldeneyes Bucephala clangula highlights the role of climate change in altering rates of conspecific brood parasitism (CBP) by affecting nest initiation dates and season length. While some authors have emphasized the effects of spatial and temporal aggregation of nests in promoting tactics of reproductive interference, few studies have addressed the effects of environmental variables on rates of CBP and other ARTs. I review some of the evidence for a relationship between population‐level nest predation rate and rates of CBP, principally in ducks and rails, and suggest a role for high rates of nest loss from all sources in the evolution of CBP and host responses. There is a need for further studies that examine environmental correlates of ARTs. Long‐term studies have the highest potential to reveal how shifts in phenology and life history variables may respond to environmental perturbations. Comparative studies of similar species in remote geographic locations can add perspective of how different ecological variables affect the prevalence of ARTs.

No support for relatedness and kin selection to explain high rates of conspecific brood parasitism in colonial Red-breasted Mergansers (Mergus serrator)

Conspecific brood parasitism (CBP) has been observed in approximately half of all species of waterfowl, a philopatric group in which breeding females are frequently locally related. It has been suggested that kin selection can facilitate the evolution of CBP in waterfowl via fitness benefits for the host and parasite. One model demonstrates that discrimination of related and unrelated parasites by the host must be sufficient for kinship to promote CBP, provided that costs of brood parasitism to host fitness are sufficiently low. We parameterized the model using demographic data and behavioural observations from a population of colonial Red-breasted Mergansers (Mergus serrator Linnaeus, 1758) in which 47% of nests were parasitized by conspecifics. The costs of 1–3 foreign eggs to host hatching success were generally small (decline of 1.8% per additional egg). Nevertheless, model outputs revealed that brood parasites maximize their inclusive fitness by avoiding nests of relatives, primarily because of constraints on a host’s ability to detect parasites at the nest. Indeed, hosts spent <8% of the diurnal period at the nest during egg laying, a period when parasite activity is greatest. It is thus highly unlikely that relatedness and kin selection promote brood parasitism in this population.

Host traits and lifetime fitness costs of being parasitized in red-breasted mergansers

The addition of eggs to a nest by a conspecific is known for approximately 250 bird species. Understanding the evolution of conspecific brood parasitism (CBP) requires assessment of fitness consequences to the egg recipient (host). We addressed host traits and the effects of CBP on future reproduction (i.e., annual survival) and hatching success of hosts by following the nesting of 206 red-breasted mergansers ( Mergus serrator) for a colony in which an average of 41% of nests was parasitized annually. Each host was tracked for ≥2 seasons and up to seven seasons. The proportion of a host’s nesting attempts that was parasitized averaged 43% and varied considerably across individuals (range 0%–100%). Probability of parasitism, however, was not repeatable across a host’s nests. Rather, rates of CBP throughout a host’s lifetime increased with earlier dates of nest initiation. CBP had no effect on annual survival of a host. Hatching success throughout a host’s lifetime declined with a greater number of foreign eggs added to the individual’s nests. This study revealed that there may be measurable costs of CBP to lifetime reproductive success in red-breasted mergansers, although our observations suggest that costs to hosts are limited to the most heavily parasitized clutches.

Use of noninvasive 'bug-eggs' to enable comparative inferences on genetic mating system with and without parental information: A study in a cattle egret colony.

Colonial waterbirds such as herons, egrets and spoonbills exhibit ecological characteristics that could have promoted the evolution of conspecific brood parasitism and extra-pair copulation. However, an adequate characterization of the genetic mating systems of this avian group has been hindered by the lack of samples of elusive candidate parents which precluded conducting conventional parentage allocation tests. Here, we investigate the genetic mating system of the invasive cattle egret using hematophagous insects contained in fake eggs to collect blood from incubating adults in a wild breeding colony. We tested a protocol with a previously unused Neotropical Triatominae, Panstrongylus megistus, obtained blood samples from males and females in 31 nests built on trees, drew blood from 89 nestlings at those nests, and genotyped all samples at 14 microsatellite loci, including six new species-specific loci. We comparatively addressed the performance of parentage allocation versus kinship classification of nestlings to infer the genetic mating system of cattle egrets. In line with previous behavioral observations, we found evidence in support of a non-monogamous genetic mating system, including extra-pair paternity (EPP) and conspecific brood parasitism (CBP). Parentage allocation tests detected a higher percentage of nests with alternative reproductive tactics (EPP: 61.7%; CBP: 64.5%) than the kinship classification method (EPP: 50.0%; CBP: 43.3%). Overall, these results indicate that rates of alternative reproductive tactics inferred in the absence of parental genetic information could be underestimated and should be interpreted with caution. This study highlights the importance of incorporating samples from candidate parents to adequately determine the genetic mating system of a species. We expand knowledge on the reproductive tactics of colonial waterbirds, contributing novel data on the genetic mating system of the cattle egret, valuable for the design of management strategies for this invasive bird.

Kin-biased conspecific brood parasitism in a native Mandarin duck population

Conspecific brood parasitism (CBP) is a widespread female alternative reproductive tactic, where clutches tended by a single female contain eggs laid by different females. CBP is disproportionately common in waterfowl, where females, not males, exhibit natal philopatry. This raises the possibility that closely related females cooperate with each other for inclusive fitness benefits and may explain why females expend effort raising offspring that are not their own. Some studies show higher host–parasite relatedness than expected, while a similar number of studies fail to do so. Here we test the hypothesis that host and parasite are closely related in Mandarin ducks (Aix galericulata) to further our understanding of the role of host–parasite relatedness in the evolution of CBP. Using microsatellite markers, we found that more than 33.7 % of ducklings were parasites and that more than 70 % of nests contained parasitic offspring. Relatedness between host mother and parasitic ducklings was significantly higher than that of host mothers and ducklings in other nests, showing hosts were, on average, more related to their parasites than to other breeding females. There was a weak negative relationship between pairwise relatedness and distance between nests. However, distance did not contribute to the higher relatedness of host and parasite. Thus, host–parasite relatedness likely involved some form of kin recognition. Based on our results, relatedness plays a role in CBP in Mandarin ducks, though the explicit fitness benefits to both the host and the parasite still need to be determined.

Evolution of Conspecific Brood Parasitism versus Cooperative Breeding as Alternative Reproductive Tactics.

Cooperative breeding and conspecific brood parasitism can both be favored by ecological saturation of breeding territories or nest sites. Here, we develop a model that links these alternative reproductive tactics by focusing on nonnesting females (S) that either breed cooperatively with a nesting female (N) or parasitize a third, outside host female (H). We find that cooperative breeding is more likely to evolve with increasing relatedness of cooperating females (S or N) to the outside host female (H) and with increasing costs to the hosts for receiving parasitic eggs. Conversely, cooperation is less likely with increasing kinship between the two potentially cooperative nesters (S and N). This is because even the nesting female gains higher inclusive fitness as long as the number of parasitic eggs (of her otherwise potentially cooperating partner) is sufficiently high. We find the relationship between kinship and reproductive skew within cooperative nests can be either positive or negative depending on the fecundity of parasites versus nesting females. We also find that either of the cooperatively nesting females is more likely to tolerate a smaller fraction of group reproduction as kinship with the host female increases and as the host reproduces more (relative to the parasite) in outside nests. Finally, our model predicts that, as the outside option of conspecific brood parasitism becomes more profitable, helping behavior (zero reproduction by one female) is less likely to evolve in cooperatively breeding groups.

Conspecific brood parasitism in the tropics: an experimental investigation of host responses in common moorhens and American purple gallinules

Species occupying a broad latitudinal range may show greater phenotypic plasticity in behavior than species with smaller ranges or more specific habitat requirements. This study investigates for the first time the occurrence of conspecific brood parasitism (CBP) in sympatric tropical populations of the common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus pauxilla Bangs) and the American purple gallinule (Porphyrula martinica L.). CBP occurred in at least 20% (N = 76) of common moorhen nests on the Rio Chagres in Panama. Half (N = 20) of the parasitic eggs were accepted, but 10 were destroyed or ejected from host nests. Introductions of experimental eggs into nests revealed hosts were more likely to accept parasitism later in the host's laying period and during incubation, consistent with expectation of an adaptive response. CBP was not detected in a small sympatric population of American purple gallinules. Members of this population did not eject experimental eggs, suggesting a lack of experience with costly CBP. Contrasting ecological factors help explain why these two species of rail (Family Rallidae) differ in regard to CBP. Purple gallinule territories were sparse, owing to the distribution of preferred habitat. Moorhens flocked outside of the breeding season. They nested more synchronously, at higher densities, and primarily in ephemeral floating vegetation. Further, moorhens suffered a rate of nest loss nearly double that of American purple gallinules, and this increased over the course of the breeding season. Moorhen clutches were larger on average, and more variable in size than those of purple gallinules. Reproductive effort and rate (seasonality) constitute important life history differences between these species that may constrain the evolution of reproductive tactics. Comparing these sympatric populations, and others differing in life-history traits and ecological constraints, highlights the role of risk management in the evolution of CBP.

Differential responses to related hosts by nesting and non‐nesting parasites in a brood‐parasitic duck

Host-parasite relatedness may facilitate the evolution of conspecific brood parasitism, but empirical support for this contention remains inconclusive. One reason for this disparity may relate to the diversity of parasitic tactics, a key distinguishing feature being whether the parasite has a nest of her own. Previous work suggests that parasites without nests of their own may be of inferior phenotypic quality, but because of difficulties in identifying these parasitic individuals, little is known about their host selection criteria. We used high-resolution molecular maternity tests to assign parasitic offspring to known parasites with and without their own nests in a population of Barrow's goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica). We determined whether parasite nesting status, host-parasite relatedness and distance between host and parasite nests affected the probability of parasitizing a host and the number of eggs laid per host. We also investigated whether nesting parasites, conventionally nesting females and non-nesting parasites differed regarding their age, structural size, body condition, nesting phenology or total brood size. The probability of engaging in parasitism increased with host-parasite relatedness and spatial proximity to host nests for nesting and non-nesting females alike. However, nesting parasites increased the number of eggs donated with relatedness to the host, while non-nesting parasites did not do so. Non-nesting parasites laid fewer eggs in total, but did not differ by any of the other quality measures from conventional nesters or nesting parasites. Our study provides the first demonstration that nesting and non-nesting parasites from the same population may use different host selection criteria.

Strategy selection under conspecific brood parasitism: an integrative modeling approach

Conspecific brood parasitism (CBP), where females lay eggs in nests of conspecifics, is taxonomically widespread. Following recent calls to consider CBP in a more integrative manner, we explore breeding strategies related to CBP by using a model of competing strategies that incorporates variation in individual quality, relatedness, recognition of own versus parasite-laid eggs, as well as the costs of egg laying and postlaying care. Our model creates 5 main conclusions. First, variation in individual quality plays a central role in shaping breeding strategies. Second, kinship plays a central role in the evolution of CBP. Third, egg recognition ability may affect the prevalence of parasitism: If hosts recognize parasitic eggs, relatedness between host and parasite facilitates CBP. Fourth, the relative costs of egg laying and postlaying care play a so far underestimated role in determining the prevalence of parasitism. Fifth, natal philopatry may lead to a reduction in productivity. To sum up, our theoretical study combines factors known to affect both breeding in general and CBP in particular and shows that these factors can explain a large proportion of the variation in CBP strategies found in the wild and therefore facilitates the understanding of the mechanisms shaping these strategies. Key words: breeding strategy, conspecific brood parasitism, cost of breeding, egg recognition, individual quality, kinship. [Behav Ecol]

Conspecific Brood Parasitism in Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima): Do Brood Parasites Target Safe Nest Sites?

ABSTRACT. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the evolution of conspecific brood parasitism (CBP), and recent studies suggest that nest predation may be an important factor in shaping this behavior. We assessed whether individuals that engage in parasitic laying preferentially deposit their eggs in safe nest sites (i.e., risk assessment hypothesis). We tested the predictions of this hypothesis using a population of Common Eiders (Somateria mollissima dresseri) nesting at Table Bay, Labrador, Canada, in 2007. Common Eiders at this location nest in three habitats (dense woody vegetation, open grassy vegetation, and nest shelters) that vary in their exposure to avian predators. We used isoelectric focusing electrophoresis of egg albumen to quantify the frequency and distribution of CBP among habitats. Nest-site safety did not explain patterns of CBP among habitats, given that nests in dense woody vegetation had the highest probability of survival (0.70; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.50–0.89) y...

Response of parasitically laying goldeneyes to experimental nest predation

Conspecific brood parasitism (CBP) has been identified as an integral life history component in birds. Recent empirical and theoretical studies suggest that nest predation is an important ecological factor affecting the occurrence and evolution of CBP; however, behavioural responses of parasites to nest predation remain unexplored. Here we report on a field experiment addressing the ability of parasitically laying common goldeneye, Bucephala clangula, females to respond to nest predation, based either on their own experience or on public information. Females that started parasitic laying in a nest and afterwards experienced partial clutch predation stopped laying in the nest. However, nests that faced partial clutch predation earlier in the season were not avoided by other parasitically laying females later in the season; these later-laying females had not themselves experienced the partial clutch predation in the nest. Hence, considering within-season responses to nest predation, a parasite uses its own experience, rather than public information, in laying decisions and nest choice. The rate of parasitic laying in the experimental nests decreased from the first to the last year of the experiment. Because the experimental nests never produced a successful clutch, this finding suggests that parasites used information on the ever-failing nature of the nests and avoided laying in them. Our results offer new experimental evidence to support the hypothesis that safety and success of nest sites play important roles in CBP.

Nest Predation and the Evolution of Conspecific Brood Parasitism: From Risk Spreading to Risk Assessment

Nest Predation and the Evolution of Conspecific Brood Parasitism: From Risk Spreading to Risk Assessment

Nest Predation and the Evolution of Conspecific Brood Parasitism: From Risk Spreading to Risk Assessment

Conspecific brood parasitism (CBP) is a taxonomically widespread reproductive tactic. One of the earliest hypotheses put forward to explain the evolution of CBP was "risk spreading"; that is, by laying eggs in more than one nest, parasites may increase the likelihood that at least one offspring will survive to independence. However, the risk spreading hypothesis, based on the assumptions of random nest predation and random selection of target nests by parasites, was theoretically refuted soon after its appearance. New results from the common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) have revealed that nests are not predated at random and that parasites preferentially lay in safe nests. By taking into account these findings and by modifying accordingly the basic assumptions of the earlier model that refuted the risk spreading hypothesis, we built a model to address the role of nest predation in the evolution of CBP. Model simulations revealed that the selective advantage of parasitic laying, related to nest predation, is much higher than previously thought. Furthermore, the invasion probability of parasitic tactic when initially rare was reasonably high within our model framework. We show that the use of risk assessing, instead of random risk spreading, makes parasitic laying evolutionarily advantageous.

Relatedness and the evolution of conspecific brood parasitism: parameterizing a model with data for a precocial species

Conspecific brood parasitism (CBP) is a common reproductive tactic in several animal taxa, especially in precocial birds. It has been suggested that host–parasite relatedness can facilitate the evolution of CBP. A recent model showed that the existence and accuracy of the kin recognition system is crucial for this to occur. I used field data to parameterize the model for the common goldeneye, Bucephala clangula, a precocial species in which CBP frequently occurs and in which a recent finding of nonrandom host–parasite relatedness has been interpreted to support the idea that relatedness and kin selection influence CBP. It turned out that possibilities to detect brood parasitism and accurately discriminate between kin and nonkin parasites are negligible in the species. The empirically parameterized model exercise revealed that relatedness and kin selection are unlikely explanations of CBP in the species.

Low host recognition tendency revealed by experimentally induced parasitic egg laying in the common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula)

Host-parasite relatedness has been suggested to promote the evolution of conspecific brood parasitism, an alternative reproductive tactic pursued by females in several animal taxa. An essential prerequisite for relatedness to promote brood parasitism is accurate kin recognition, including the recognition of related hosts by parasites. I performed a field experiment to address the accuracy of host recognition by parasites in the common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula), a cavity-nesting duck. I studied whether parasites discriminate between experimental nests that did not have a host (i.e., new nest boxes that contained chicken eggs dyed to mimic the colour of common goldeneye eggs) and real nests that did have a host (i.e., active nests that progressed to incubation). Parasitic egg laying in the experimental nests was not constrained by the lack of contemporarily available nests that had a host; it was also not constrained by the lack of suitable and empty nest sites. There was no difference in the start of parasitic laying between the experimental and real nests. The experimental nests and real nests were equally parasitized. The findings suggest that host recognition by parasites is not sophisticated in the common goldeneye, questioning the possible function of accurate kin recognition in brood parasitism in this species.

Parasitic common goldeneye ( Bucephala clangula ) females lay preferentially in safe neighbourhoods

Abstract Nest predation has been suggested as anexplanation of the adaptive significance and evolutionof conspecific brood parasitism, an alternative reproduc-tive tactic pursued by females in several animal taxa. Iused new nest boxes that contained only decoy eggs andwere erected on lakes differing in real nest predation riskto test this hypothesis in the common goldeneye (Bu-cephala clangula), a hole-nesting duck. I used brokeneggs to simulate predation risk of the boxes to determineif parasites having no previous experience with the boxesdiscriminate between seemingly safe and risky nest sites.Parasites laid eggs in the experimental boxes indepen-dently of the simulated predation risk, suggesting thatthey do not use broken eggs or nest disarray as indicatorsof predation intensity. Parasites preferred experimentalboxes on lakes where real nest predation risk was low,supporting the nest predation risk hypothesis. Assumingthat females in high risk areas have had experience of nestpredation, they may take this into account in selectinghost nests.Keywords Bucephala clangula · Conspecific broodparasitism · Experience · Nest predation

The role of kin recognition in the evolution of conspecific brood parasitism

Conspecific brood parasitism (CBP) is a common strategy in several species of birds. Currently, some studies suggest that relatedness between host and parasite enhances CBP, since indirect fitness benefits could select for acceptance of related eggs by hosts. Conversely, parasites should avoid laying eggs in nests of relatives if this is costly for the host. Based on the latter argument, kinship should not promote brood parasitism. A recent model clarified this relationship, and showed that kinship can promote brood parasitism, assuming kin recognition. However, in that model kin recognition was assumed perfect. Here we present a model that addresses the role of relatedness and kin selection in CBP, when kin recognition is not perfect and hosts do not always detect parasitism. We consider both the indirect fitness of the parasite and the possible responses of the host. Our results indicate that the existence and accuracy of a kin recognition system is crucial to the final outcome. When CBP represents a cost to the host, a parasitic female that has the choice should avoid parasitizing relatives, unless (1) the costs are not too high and (2) hosts can accurately enough recognize eggs laid by relatives, rejecting them less often than eggs laid by nonkin. But if ‘parasitism’ enhances the direct fitness of the host (which is possible in species with precocial young) parasites should choose relatives whenever possible, even if hosts do not recognize kin eggs. Copyright 2002 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Reproductive skew and the threat of eviction: a new perspective

Most recent models of the partitioning of reproduction attempt to explain patterns of skew on the assumption that dominant individuals have complete control over breeding opportunities within the group, but may nevertheless concede a share of direct reproduction to subordinates as an incentive to remain peacefully in the association. Although these models may be applicable to some animal societies, we argue that they fail to provide a comprehensive theory of skew. Instead, we suggest that subordinates may often be able to claim unsanctioned reproduction for themselves, but will be forced to exercise a degree of reproductive restraint lest they incite ejection by the dominant. Reproductive skew, in other words, may reflect the threat of ejection (inducing subordinate restraint) rather than the threat of subordinate departure (inducing reproductive concessions by dominants). We present a simple ESS model of reproductive skew under these circumstances, which demonstrates that a shift in emphasis from reproductive concessions by dominants to reproductive restraint on the part of subordinates, radically alters the predictions of skew models. High group productivity, high relatedness and (when group members are related) strong ecological constraints are all expected to lead to reduced skew (the opposite conclusions to those of previous, concession-based analyses). The reason is that these factors reduce the benefits (or increase the costs) of ejection to the dominant, who therefore does best to tolerate more subordinate reproduction.

Is Nest Parasitism Always Deleterious to Goldeneyes?

Previous articleNext article No AccessNotes and CommentsIs Nest Parasitism Always Deleterious to Goldeneyes?John McA. Eadie and Harry G. LumsdenJohn McA. Eadie Search for more articles by this author and Harry G. Lumsden Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by The American Naturalist Volume 126, Number 6Dec., 1985 Published for The American Society of Naturalists Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/284458 Views: 14Total views on this site Citations: 25Citations are reported from Crossref Copyright 1985 The University of ChicagoPDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Bruce E. Lyon, Daizaburo Shizuka Context-dependent response to eggs: egg retrieval versus egg rejection in a conspecific brood parasite, Animal Behaviour 132 (Oct 2017): 281–289.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.08.022Malte Andersson Helping Relatives Survive and Reproduce: Inclusive Fitness and Reproductive Value in Brood Parasitism, The American Naturalist 189, no.22 (Dec 2016): 138–152.https://doi.org/10.1086/689991Ye Gong, Rebecca T. Kimball, Colette St. Mary, Xiang Cui, Lin Wang, Yunlei Jiang, Haitao Wang Kin-biased conspecific brood parasitism in a native Mandarin duck population, Journal of Ornithology 157, no.44 (May 2016): 1063–1072.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-016-1353-3Ondřej Šťovíček, Jakub Kreisinger, Veronika Javůrková, Tomáš Albrecht High rates of conspecific brood parasitism revealed by microsatellite analysis in a diving duck, the common pochard Aythya ferina, Journal of Avian Biology 44, no.44 (Mar 2013): 369–375.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-048X.2013.00074.xPatrick R. Lemons, James S. Sedinger, Pamela Svete Randle Detecting conspecific brood parasitism using egg morphology in black brant Branta bernicla nigricans, Journal of Avian Biology 42, no.44 (Jul 2011): 282–288.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-048X.2011.05217.xPatrick R. Lemons, James S. Sedinger Egg size matching by an intraspecific brood parasite, Behavioral Ecology 22, no.44 (Apr 2011): 696–700.https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arr035DAVID K. DAHLGREN, TERRY A. MESSMER, DAVID N. KOONS Achieving Better Estimates of Greater Sage-Grouse Chick Survival in Utah, The Journal of Wildlife Management 74, no.66 (Dec 2010): 1286–1294.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1937-2817.2010.tb01249.xŠárka Neužilová, Petr Musil Inter-Specific Egg Recognition Among Two Diving Ducks Species, Common Pochard Aythya ferina and Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula, Acta Ornithologica 45, no.11 (Jun 2010): 59–65.https://doi.org/10.3161/000164510X516092Bruce E. Lyon, John McA. Eadie Conspecific Brood Parasitism in Birds: A Life-History Perspective, Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 39, no.11 (Dec 2008): 343–363.https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.39.110707.173354ELLEN KALMBACH Why do goose parents adopt unrelated goslings? A review of hypotheses and empirical evidence, and new research questions, Ibis 148, no.11 (Jan 2006): 66–78.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2006.00496.xDouglas W. Tallamy EGG DUMPING IN INSECTS, Annual Review of Entomology 50, no.11 (Jan 2005): 347–370.https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130424Hannu Pöysä Low host recognition tendency revealed by experimentally induced parasitic egg laying in the common goldeneye ( Bucephala clangula ), Canadian Journal of Zoology 81, no.99 (Sep 2003): 1561–1565.https://doi.org/10.1139/z03-147 Michael L. G. Loeb Evolution of Egg Dumping in a Subsocial Insect. M. L. G Loeb, The American Naturalist 161, no.11 (Jul 2015): 129–142.https://doi.org/10.1086/344918Andrés López-Sepulcre, Hanna Kokko The role of kin recognition in the evolution of conspecific brood parasitism, Animal Behaviour 64, no.22 (Aug 2002): 215–222.https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2002.3043Bruce D. Dugger, Peter Blums Effect of Conspecific Brood Parasitism on Host Fitness for Tufted Duck and Common Pochard, The Auk 118, no.33 (Jul 2001): 717–726.https://doi.org/10.1093/auk/118.3.717Peter Pyle, D. Nettleship , The Auk 118, no.44 ( 2001): 996.https://doi.org/10.1093/auk/118.4.996 John McA. Eadie and Bruce E. Lyon Cooperation, Conflict, and Crèching Behavior in Goldeneye Ducks Eadie, Lyon, The American Naturalist 151, no.55 (Jul 2015): 397–408.https://doi.org/10.1086/286128ANTHONY J NASTASE, DAWN A SHERRY Effect of brood mixing on location and survivorship of juvenile Canada geese, Animal Behaviour 54, no.33 (Sep 1997): 503–507.https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1996.0441Kjell Larsson, Håkan Tegelström, Pär Forslund Intraspecific nest parasitism and adoption of young in the barnaele goose: effects on survival and reproductive performance, Animal Behaviour 50, no.55 (Jan 1995): 1349–1360.https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-3472(95)80050-6Brian D. Wisenden, Miles H. A. Keenleyside The Dilution Effect and Differential Predation Following Brood Adoption in Free-ranging Convict Cichlids (Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum), Ethology 96, no.33 (Apr 2010): 203–212.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1994.tb01010.xM. Petrie, A.P. Møller Laying eggs in others' nests: Intraspecific brood parasitism in birds, Trends in Ecology & Evolution 6, no.1010 (Oct 1991): 315–320.https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(91)90038-YJosef K. Müller, Anne-Katrin Eggert, Jürgen Dressel Intraspecific brood parasitism in the burying beetle, Necrophorus vespilloides (Coleoptera: Silphidae), Animal Behaviour 40, no.33 (Sep 1990): 491–499.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-3472(05)80529-9David B. Lank, Robert F. Rockwell, Fred Cooke FREQUENCY-DEPENDENT FITNESS CONSEQUENCES OF INTRASPECIFIC NEST PARASITISM IN SNOW GEESE, Evolution 44, no.66 (May 2017): 1436–1453.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1990.tb03837.xDavid B. Lank, Pierre Mineau, Robert F. Rockwell, Fred Cooke Intraspecific nest parasitism and extra-pair copulation in lesser snow geese, Animal Behaviour 37 (Jan 1989): 74–89.https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-3472(89)90008-0 Jeffrey S. Marks , and Roland L. Redmond Parent-Offspring Conflict and Natal Dispersal in Birds and Mammals: Comments on the Oedipus Hypothesis, The American Naturalist 129, no.11 (Oct 2015): 158–164.https://doi.org/10.1086/284627