Evidence Of Gender Inequality Research Articles

New evidence of gender inequality during COVID-19 outbreak in the Middle East and North Africa

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly altered employment and income distribution, impacting women and men differently. This study investigates the negative effects of COVID-19 on the labour market, focusing on the gender gap in five countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The study indicates whether women are more susceptible to losing their jobs, either temporarily or permanently, switching their primary occupation, and experiencing decreased working hours and income compared to men during the COVID-19 outbreak. The study utilizes a multivariate Probit model to estimate the relationship between gender and adverse labour outcomes controlling for correlations among outcomes. Data are obtained from the Combined COVID-19 MENA Monitor Household Survey, covering Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, Jordan, and Sudan. The findings of this study offer empirical evidence of the gender gap in labour market outcomes during the pandemic. Women are more likely than men to experience negative work outcomes, such as permanent job loss and change in their main job. The increased childcare and housework responsibilities have significantly impacted women's labour market outcomes during the pandemic. However, the availability of telework has reduced the likelihood of job loss among women. The study's results contribute to a better understanding of the impact of COVID-19 on gender inequality in understudied MENA countries. Mitigation policies should focus on supporting vulnerable women who have experienced disproportionate negative effects of COVID-19.

Pharmacists’ perceptions and views regarding gender inequality in the pharmacy workforce

Abstract Introduction Gender equality, one of the main human rights, is a factor that catalyses the quality of healthcare. In the pharmacy workforce, there is evidence of gender inequality (GI). Females make up to 70% of the pharmacy personnel worldwide but they hold only 25% of leadership roles.1 This male-dominated leadership is a predictor of high rates of harassment.2 Sexual harassment (SH) is a sensitive topic, which concerns many professions. In the pharmacy profession, SH can happen at any point in the career. Nowadays, the dynamics of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, or questioning (LGBTQ+) community (LGBTQ+c) have been growing, with its members claiming equal treatment with the rest of the society. LGBTQ+c may feel embarrassed and so avoid healthcare, which implies a poor health prognosis and exacerbates health inequalities.3 Aim This study aimed to identify pharmacists’ perceptions regarding GI, their experiences in SH and to explore their behaviours and practice in LGBTQ+c in Greece. Methods This quantitative research used a survey-based questionnaire (consisting of 6 sections and 55 multiple-choice and Likert scale questions, including on demographics, designed after an extensive literature search. The study was conducted in Corfu (the 4th largest island in Greece) based on the local knowledge and convenience of the researcher. A pilot study was also conducted for the validity and reliability of the questions with no further changes. The questionnaires were distributed electronically (March/April 2022) in all 117 pharmacies in Corfu. The data underwent descriptive statistical analysis. Prior to data collection, all documentation was ethically approved by the Pharmaceutical Association of Corfu in Greece. Results In total, 90 pharmacists responded positively and completed the questionnaire (response rate of 77%). A total of 63,3% (n=57) of the sample were female and 36,7% (n=33) were male pharmacists. It was also identified through responses that although women are satisfactorily represented in the pharmacy profession (80%, n=72), the leading positions are occupied by men. (88.9%, n=80). Furthermore, it was observed that female pharmacists receive verbal violence and SH more often, both in the community pharmacy (96.6%, n=86) and in the university (66.3%, n=59). The effects of such behavior appeared to exert psychological pressure on the pharmacist, resulting in reduced performance (83.3%, n=75). Pharmacists (81.2%, n=73) expressed the need of a more specialised education on how to deal with patients from LGBTQ+c. Discussion/Conclusion This appears to be the first study exploring GI in the pharmacy profession in Greece, the forms in which it manifests, the ways of dealing with it, and the parameters regarding the management of LGBTQ+c in the pharmacy premises. The study’s limitations included the small sample size, the minimum data collection period (two months) and the location (Corfu); thus, the results might not be generalisable. In conclusion, further training may eliminate GI in the pharmacy workforce and contribute to the formation of a more multifaceted cognitive spectrum that will strengthen the pharmacists’ role in the provision of a fully integrated care to all patients and to provide a safe care environment for people belonging to the LGBTQ+c.

Internationalization and breaking the glass ceiling: An institutional perspective

Gender diversity continues to serve as a thought-provoking and challenging topic for society and business alike. Even as organizations implement policies to minimize discriminatory practices in the workplace, evidence of gender inequality in firms around the world persists. Drawing on institutional theory, this study focuses on the effect that foreign investors and host country corporate social responsibility (CSR) policies have on gender diversity, and how professional groups can moderate this relationship. In analyzing 608 observations from listed firms in Taiwan, the findings demonstrate these relationships. It is shown that both foreign investor ownership and good host country CSR in firms are positively linked to the promotion of women into managerial positions. The assurance of professional groups in home countries further enhances this positive relationship. Our results further indicate how institutions carried across borders by organizations can influence firm decisions such as gender diversity through global norms of corporate CSR and also by the assurance of professional groups in the home multinational firm.

Evidence of Gender Inequality in Agriculture Related to Climate Change

When considering the negative effects of climate change, its relevance to a person’s socio-economic status and cultural background is often ignored. In other words, climate change affects everyone, but its effects on different individuals and groups differ due to long standing inequalities in human society. The importance of gender discrimination in particular is in deseperate need of additional attention during this unprecedented global environmental event.
 A plethora of research articles and data show that women are affected disproportionately by climate change. To expand, sexism in relation to climate change is especially evident in agriculture. In this case, negative impacts of climate change are further intensified due to the industry’s close connection with the environment. Therefore, additional research should be dedicated towards understanding the discrimination against female farmers, and thus it is the focus of this essay. 
 The essay focuses on developing African nations where conventional agriculture is the main source of income. By using previous research and database searches from scientific journals, governmental websites, and international organizations, the increasing burdens on female farmers in climate crises will be analyzed. Throughout the investigation, it was discovered that African rural women are excessively exposed to climate change threats and lack adaptability. When viewing this through a holistic lens– acknowledging the cultural and historical backgrounds of Africa–it was concluded that subordination of rural women in all contexts is responsible for their predicament in climate crises. To address these issues, the essay proposes potential solutions from educational, economics, and political perspectives. 

He’s Overqualified, She’s Highly Committed: Qualification Signals and Gendered Assumptions About Job Candidate Commitment

Evidence suggests that possessing more qualifications than is necessary for a job (i.e., overqualification) negatively impacts job candidates’ outcomes. However, unfair discounting of women’s qualifications and negative assumptions about women’s career commitment imply that female candidates must be overqualified to achieve the same outcomes as male candidates. Across two studies, experimental and qualitative data provide converging evidence in support of this assertion, showing that gender differences in how overqualification impacts hiring outcomes are due to the type of commitment—firm or career—that is most salient during evaluations. Overqualified men are perceived to be less committed to the prospective firm, and less likely to be hired as a result, than sufficiently qualified men. But overqualified women are perceived to be more committed to their careers than qualified women because overqualification helps overcome negative assumptions that are made about women’s career commitment. Overqualification also does not decrease perceptions of women’s firm commitment like it does for men: supplemental qualitative and experimental evidence reveals that hiring managers rationalize women’s overqualification in a way they cannot for men by relying on gender stereotypes about communality and assumptions about candidates’ experiences with gender discrimination at prior firms. These findings suggest that female candidates must demonstrate their commitment along two dimensions (firm and career), but male candidates need only demonstrate their commitment along one dimension (firm). Taken together, differences in how overqualification impacts male versus female candidates’ outcomes are evidence of gender inequality in hiring processes, operating through gendered assumptions about commitment. Funding: This research was funded by internal faculty research funds provided by Tepper School of Business, Carnegie Mellon University. Supplemental Material: The online appendices are available at https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2021.1550 .

New Evidence of Gender Inequality During COVID-19 Outbreak in the Middle East and North Africa

New Evidence of Gender Inequality During COVID-19 Outbreak in the Middle East and North Africa

Leaning In or All in the Family? Gender Equality, Dynastic Legacies, and Female Leaders

Until the second half of the twentieth century, it was relatively rare for women to become leaders of states. As gender equality has increased, so has the number of female leaders. In countries that have made the greatest strides toward gender equity women’s roles have evolved, including directly participating in political leadership. While the chances of a woman becoming head of state or government increase with overall gender equity, at the opposite end of the equality spectrum there are also a number of women who achieved the most powerful office in the nation, including Benazir Bhutto, Indira Gandhi, Corazon Aquino, and Aung San Suu Kyi, and Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner. What can explain how women rise to power in patriarchal societies with extreme gender inequity? This paper addresses the puzzle of female leaders in states with high levels of gender inequality, and considers how these women came to power. Specifically, we hypothesize that women in countries with less gender equality are more likely to come to power through dynastic legacies as the relatives of former leaders. These familial connections often allow women to connect to political legacies powerful enough to overcome society’s preference for men in positions of influence. In the most extreme cases, dynastic female leaders may actually be evidence of gender inequality as they are seen as little more than the extension of male relatives. This paper uses case studies and multi-country panel regression to investigate the relationship between gender inequality and dynastic female leadership.

Are dentists considering a career in orthodontic clinical academia? A qualitative study into the factors influencing a career in orthodontics.

Introduction Dental clinical academics are essential members of the dental workforce with roles in teaching, research and scholarship. There is currently a national shortage of UK dental clinical academics, with difficulties recruiting to all grades. In addition, there is evidence of gender inequality within academia, with segregation at a horizontal and vertical level.Aim To investigate the factors that influence a career in orthodontic clinical academia and highlight ways to improve recruitment and retention.Method A qualitative research study utilising focus groups. Purposive sampling was carried out to recruit participants at different stages of an orthodontic career. A total of eight face-to-face focus groups were conducted with 26 participants. Focus groups were split by gender and career stage. An inductive thematic analysis was used to generate themes.Results Three major themes were generated: academic career options, motivations and barriers to pursuing a clinical academic career.Conclusion This paper sheds light on the current factors affecting a career in orthodontic clinical academia. Worryingly, most dentists do not strive for an academic career and the barriers to pursuing this career option are discussed. Ways of addressing the issues facing recruitment and retention of individuals to orthodontic clinical academia are suggested.

Inquiry and Gender Inequity in the Undergraduate Mathematics Classroom

Our field has generally reached a consensus that active-learning approaches improve student success; however, there is a need to explore the ways that particular instructional approaches affect various student groups. We examined the relationship between gender and student learning outcomes in one context: inquiry-oriented abstract algebra. Using hierarchical linear modeling, we analyzed content assessment data from 522 students. We detected a gender performance difference (with men outperforming women) in the inquiry-oriented classes that was not present in other classes. We take the differential result between men and women to be evidence of gender inequity in our context. In response to these findings, we present avenues for future research on the gendered experiences of students in such classes.

Evidence of gender inequality in energy use from a mixed-methods study in India

Prior studies suggest that women particularly stand to benefit from increased electricity access. Yet, few have empirically tested this implicit linkage between energy access (SDG 7) and gender equality (SDG 5). More specifically, few explore how female household members use electricity once it is made accessible. Using India as an illustrative case, we conduct a mixed-methods study. We first inductively assess household appliance use by gender in Gujarat (n = 31). We then assess the generalizability of the use patterns identified through a representative six-state household survey (Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, n = 8,563). In including use, we find that women are neither the sole nor primary beneficiaries of electricity access, even when appliances that would particularly benefit them are affordable. While energy access could improve gender equity, our study highlights intra-household power dynamics as an important boundary condition on realizing more equitable energy access. Increased electricity availability has been posited as a boost for gender equity by providing women with access to appliances. However, social and household norms could mitigate this access, as this mixed-methods study investigates.

Gender(un)gleichheit im Lebensverlauf

This article considers gender inequality through the prism of reported life satisfaction over the whole life cycle. Life satisfaction, an individuals’ global evaluation of their life, is a wellunderstood, oftinvestigated concept that can be considered an output measure. The authors are thereby answering four basic questions: (1) Is subjective wellbeing (SWB) for men and women significantly different? (2) Do we see gender difference movements over time? (3) Are there regional variances? (4) Are there different patterns by age? Overall, using thirty years of representative German data, the authors find little evidence of gender inequality in SWB. But there are surprising disparities in certain age classes. This simple, unconditional, age neutralised analysis offers a different perspective to the more typical econometric analyses and has wider applications, for example considering other issues of inequality and intergroup comparisons.

Attitudes to out-of-programme experiences, research and academic training of gastroenterology trainees between 2007 and 2016

ObjectiveAcademic medical training was overhauled in 2005 after the Walport report and Modernising Medical Careers to create a more attractive and transparent training pathway. In 2007 and 2016, national web-based...

Balancing family work and paid work: gender-based equality in the new democratic family

For most parents, life is no longer a matter of being a parent or a worker--it's both. The traditional gender-based family model was based on role specialisation whereby mothers focussed on family work while fathers were responsible for generating the income to support the family. While mothers were excused from earning an income, fathers were largely excused from day-to-day family caring obligations. But the emergence of the democratic family means that roles are not meant to be ascribed simply because of gender but are to be negotiated and shared. At the level of ideology at least, mothers are encouraged to participate in the public world of paid work and fathers are to participate more in the private world of family caring. While this new deal of gender equality is widely accepted in theory we have not been so successful in working out how to live the new deal. Both mothers and fathers have largely been expected to add responsibilities and work to their already crowded lives. Numerous studies have demonstrated that simply doing two full-time jobs (parenting and waged work) is extraordinarily difficult for any individual and results in considerable stress and can result in degraded parenting and degraded relationships. The demands for an individual in doing both roles has been shown to be particularly demanding on mothers who, despite taking on paid work, continue to do the lion's share of the domestic work. The experience of the competing demands of family and of employment is not uniform. Many factors shape the experience. The workplace itself, the structure of the immediate family (partnered, number of children, age of children), the availability of supports from one's wider family and friends, the availability of childcare and many other considerations all contribute to the experience of tensions between work and family and the capacity to manage these tensions. The paper by Losoncz and Bortolotto (2009) provides a way of summarising the different types of experiences of mothers. Using nationally representative data they identify six broad ways in which mothers experience the need to manage both work and family lives. They describe the range of types including those who manage both roles well through to those who struggle rather unsuccessfully. Their research draws attention to both the variety of experiences and some of the factors tied to these experiences. As such it provides the basis for further thinking about how those who struggle with the balancing act might be helped to manage better. Men and women have experimented with many ways both to parent and hold down a paid job. Many of these approaches involve mothers and fathers sharing the domestic load more evenly. The theory sounds great. As mothers generate an increasing share of the responsibility for earning the family income so fathers are to play a larger role in domestic work and family care. But ample research has demonstrated that mothers who hold down even full-time jobs continue to be responsible for the larger part of these family responsibilities. Many governments have or are considering ways to encourage fathers to play a larger part in domestic and family caring responsibilities. Increasingly fathers of newborn children have access to either paid or unpaid leave as a means of both supporting the mother but to get fathers involved in daily family activities from the time their child is born. Sweden is frequently looked to as being at the leading edge of policies and practices to promote gender equality and sharing in parenting roles by both parents. Thomas and Hildingsson's (2009) paper on the domestic division of labour between parents of newborn children provides insight into the situation in a country that is at the leading edge of policies to promote greater gender equality. It is sobering to learn that despite enlightened paternity leave policies that considerable evidence of gender inequity in relation to domestic work and childcare persists despite enlightened policies. …

Equal treatment: no evidence of gender inequity in osteoporosis management in a coordinator-based fragility fracture screening program.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate an Ontario-based fracture prevention program for its ability to address the well-documented gender imbalance in osteoporosis (OP) management, by incorporating its integrated fracture risk assessments within a needs-based evaluation of equity. Fragility fracture patients (≥50years) who were treatment naïve at screening and completed follow-up within 6months of screening were studied. Patients who underwent bone mineral density (BMD) testing done in the year prior to their current fracture were excluded. All participants had BMD testing conducted through the Ontario OP Strategy Fracture Screening and Prevention program, thus providing us with fracture risk assessment data. Our primary study outcome was treatment initiation at follow-up within 6months of screening. Gender differences were compared using Fisher's exact test, at p<0.05. After adjusting for subsequent fracture risk, study participants did not show a statistically significant gender difference in pharmacotherapy initiation at follow-up (p>0.05). 68.4% of women and 66.2% of men at high risk were treated within 6months of screening. Needs-based analyses show no difference by gender in treatment of high-risk fragility fracture patients. An intensive coordinator-based fracture prevention model adopted in Ontario, Canada was not associated with gender inequity in OP treatment of fragility fracture patients after fracture risk adjustment.

The influence of students' gender on equity in Peer Physical Examination: a qualitative study.

Peer Physical Examination (PPE) is an educational tool used globally for learning early clinical skills and anatomy. In quantitative research, there are differences in students' preferences and actual participation in PPE by gender. This novel study qualitatively explores the effect that gender has on medical students' experiences of learning physical examination through PPE. We employ an interpretative approach to uncover the PPE experiences of students from a European, graduate-entry medical school. Volunteers participated in either individual or group interviews. The data were transcribed, de-identified and analysed using thematic analysis. There was evidence of gender inequity in PPE, with students describing significant imbalances in participation. Male students adopted roles that generated significant personal discomfort and led to fewer experiences as examiners. Assumptions were made by tutors and students about gender roles: male students' ready acceptance of exposure to be examined and female students' need to be protected from particular examinations. In contrast with the first assumption, male students did feel coerced or obliged to be examined. Students described their experiences of taking action to break down the gender barrier. Importantly, students reported that tutors played a role in perpetuating inequities. These findings, whilst relating to one university, have implications for all settings where PPE is used. Educators should be vigilant about gender issues and the effect that they may have on students' participation in PPE to ensure that students are not disadvantaged in their learning.

Climbing the Job Ladder: New Evidence of Gender Inequity

An explanation for the gender wage gap is that women are less able or less willing to “climb the job ladder.” However, the empirical evidence on gender differences in job mobility has been mixed. Focusing on a subsample of younger, university‐educated workers from an Australian longitudinal survey, we find strong evidence that the dynamics of promotions and employer changes worsen women’s labor market position.

Climbing the Job Ladder: New Evidence of Gender Inequity

Climbing the Job Ladder: New Evidence of Gender Inequity

Overcoming gender inequity in prevention of blindness and visual impairment in Africa

Background:Globally, and in Africa, after adjusting for age, women are about 1.4 times more likely to be blind than men. While women generally live longer than men, the lack of accessibility to and use of services is likely the most important reason for excess blindness in women in Africa.Aim:We sought to review the literature on vision loss in Africa and summarize the findings related to gender equity.Materials and Methods:Information from across sub-Saharan Africa was collected on the evidence of gender inequity and reasons for this inequity. Finally, the results were used to generate suggestions on how gender equity could be improved.Results:In all published surveys (except one), cataract surgical coverage among women was lower than cataract surgical coverage among men. Although data available are limited, similar findings appeared in the use of services for other disease conditions, notably, childhood cataract and glaucoma. Evidence suggests that a variety of approaches are needed to improve the use of eye care services. Three main strategies are needed to address gender inequity in vision loss in Africa. First, it is important to address transport needs. Second, counseling of patients and family members is required. Finally, programs need to put in place pricing systems that make the services affordable the population.Conclusions:VISION 2020 can be achieved in Africa, but investment is needed in a variety of strategies that will ensure that eye care services are affordable, accessible, and acceptable to women and girls.

Sex and socioeconomic differentials in child health in rural Bangladesh: findings from a baseline survey for evaluating Integrated Management of Childhood Illness.

This paper reports on a population-based sample survey of 2,289 children aged less than five years (under-five children) conducted in 2000 as a baseline for the Bangladesh component of the Multi-country Evaluation (MCE) of the Integrated Management of Childhood Illness strategy. Of interest were rates and differentials by sex and socioeconomic status for three aspects of child health in rural Bangladesh: morbidity and hospitalizations, including severity of illness; care-seeking for childhood illness; and home-care for illness. The survey was carried out among a population of about 380,000 in Matlab upazila (subdistrict). Generic MCE Household Survey tools were adapted, translated, and pretested. Trained interviewers conducted the survey in the study areas. In total, 2,289 under-five children were included in the survey. Results showed a very high prevalence of illness among Bangladeshi children, with over two-thirds reported to have had at least one illness during the two weeks preceding the survey. Most sick children in this population had multiple symptoms, suggesting that the use of the IMCI clinical guidelines will lead to improved quality of care. Contrary to expectations, there were no significant differences in the prevalence of illness either by sex or by socioeconomic status. About one-third of the children with a reported illness did not receive any care outside the home. Of those for whom outside care was sought, 42% were taken to a village doctor. Only 8% were taken to an appropriate provider, i.e. a health facility, a hospital, a doctor, a paramedic, or a community-based health worker. Poorer children than less-poor children were less likely to be taken to an appropriate healthcare provider. The findings indicated that children with severe illness in the least poor households were three times more likely to seek care from a trained provider than children in the poorest households. Any evidence of gender inequities in child healthcare, either in terms of prevalence of illness or care-seeking patterns, was not found. Care-seeking patterns were associated with the perceived severity of illness, the presence of danger signs, and the duration and number of symptoms. The results highlight the challenges that will need to be addressed as IMCI is implemented in health facilities and extended to address key family and community practices, including extremely low rates of use of the formal health sector for the management of sick children. Child health planners and researchers must find ways to address the apparent population preference for untrained and traditional providers which is determined by various factors, including the actual and perceived quality of care, and the differentials in care-seeking practices that discriminate against the poorest households.

Gender dynamics and redundancy in urban China

This paper focuses on employment narratives recounted in life history interviews with women workers in Nanjing, China. Drawing on feminist perspectives on gender and global economic changes, it examines the micro-processes that underpinned China's economic restructuring and, through a gender-based analysis, shows how working women lost out in this process. After an overview of the institutional context in which China's economic restructuring occurred, this paper examines women's experiences in the workplace and identifies factors that contributed to their disadvantageous position in the work unit and that increased their vulnerability in the changing labor market. The evidence of gender inequality, assumptions about women's labor capacities, and the gendered consequences of economic restructuring suggest that older, less educated women workers, mostly from the Cultural Revolution generation, are unlikely to gain any benefit from whatever advantages accrue from China's economic integration into the global economy.