Ever-married Women Research Articles

Married Women's Experience of Domestic Violence in Malawi: New Evidence From a Cluster and Multinomial Logistic Regression Analysis.

Violence against women is a global issue with estimates indicating that 35% of all women worldwide have experienced either physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence or nonpartner violence in their life time. In Malawi, 42% of ever-married women have experienced some form of violence perpetrated by their current or most recent spouse. A number of studies have investigated intimate partner violence in Malawi within the context of HIV/AIDS, girls' sexual abuse, and psychological distress, and a few studies report on the role of sociocultural factors in influencing gender-based violence. No study has used cluster analysis to systematically analyze different levels of abuse among married women in Malawi. Using the 2015 Malawi Demographic and Health Survey data, we employed cluster analysis and multinomial logistic regression to analyze the distribution of different levels of abuse among married women in Malawi and the key attributes associated with each level of abuse. Correlates of domestic violence significantly differ by levels of abuse and are distributed as follows: controlling behavior (11.8%), general controlling behavior (GCB; 27.1%), moderate physical and emotional abuse (27.2%), and the high and complete abuse (8.5%). Alcohol consumption, ethnicity, and women working status were significantly associated with all four levels of abuse, but age and religion were only associated with controlling behavior and generalized controlling behavior. The strength of association between husband's alcohol consumption, woman's working status, and marriage type and domestic violence increased by level of abuse. On each of these factors, the odds of experiencing violence were lowest in the controlling behavior group and highest in the high physical and emotional abuse group. Policies and programs that are designed to tackle violence against married women in Malawi should incorporate strategies that discourage excessive alcohol consumption, promote messages that women can be bread winners, and discourage polygamous marriage.

Reproductive Correlates of Natural Age at Menopause: A Study on the Minyong of Arunachal Pradesh

This cross-sectional study attempts to determine the median age at menopause of 154 ever-married menopausal women belonging to the Minyong tribal community of Arunachal Pradesh. The study further attempts to see whether there is any significant association between age at menopause and the reproductive variables. The results of this study reject the association between age at menarche and menopause. Cox univariate regression of proportional risks analysis shows that the age at menopause is significantly related with age at marriage, nature of lifetime menstrual cycle, length between consecutive menstrual cycles, parity, age at last delivery, and postpartum amenorrhea (PPA). A less-studied variable, PPA, is undertaken, and a significant association is observed between the duration of PPA and the age at natural menopause. Multiparous women and later age at last delivery reported late age at natural menopause.

Impact of Proximate Determinants on Fertility Transition Behind the Socio-demographic Factors in Bangladesh: A Hierarchical Approach from the National Survey

Introduction: Fertility is a vital ingredient in measuring population fluctuation. Bangladesh is still above the level of replacement level fertility. The target of this research was to determine the proximate factors on fertility rate reduction in Bangladesh. Methods: The 2014 Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) was used as secondary data. The association between fertility and sociodemographic variables was determined by bivariate analysis. Multiple regression analysis in a hierarchical approach was applied to determine the impact of factors on fertility rate reduction. Results: In the 2014 BDHS, the mean fertility of women aged 15-49 years was 2.45, and 76.5% of women were married at an early age. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis revealed that education has a significant effect on fertility rate. Increasing the education status of women decreased fertility, while other variants of Model I were controlled. Women who accomplish a secondary or higher education are more likely to have fewer children than illiterate women. Conclusion: The findings of the current study strongly recommend that efforts be made to augment female education, to inform women of the negative impact of early marriage, and to enhance the quality of contraceptive use for all ever-married women, particularly those living in the eastern region. Such steps would be the largest contribution to a future reduction in fertility rates in Bangladesh.

Association between child marriage and institutional delivery care services use in Bangladesh: intersections between education and place of residence

ObjectivesTo examine the association between child marriage and women's use of institutional delivery care services and whether education and place of residence moderate this association. Study designThe study used de-identified data from four rounds (2004, 2007, 2011, and 2014) of the Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS). The BDHS is a cross-sectional survey conducted every three years. The analysis was based on 16,099 ever-married women aged 15–49 years with at least one live birth in the three years before the survey. MethodsThe study used multivariable logistic regression models with interaction terms between age at marriage, education, and place of residence. Adjusted predicted probabilities of outcome variables were computed from interaction models. ResultsChild marriage is significantly associated with decreased use of institutional delivery care services. Compared to women who married at adult ages (≥18 years), women who married between ages of 12–14 years were the most disadvantaged in having delivered at a health facility (odds ratio [OR]: 0.62; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.51–0.74) and having a skilled attendant present (OR: 0.63; 95% CI: 0.53–0.75) at the birth of their last child. The analysis suggests that the effect of education on the use of institutional delivery care is stronger among women married at age 18 or older compared to women who married younger than age 18 years. Further, the joint effect of age at marriage and education is stronger for women living in urban than rural place of residence. ConclusionsIncreasing the age at marriage and discouraging child marriage may be a fruitful way to improve mother and child health in Bangladesh. Encouraging girls to complete high school and pursue college education would also help decline the rate of child marriage and, in turn, benefit social mobility and health.

Socioeconomic inequality and determinants of postnatal home visits made by public health midwives: An analysis of the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey.

IntroductionThe impact of socioeconomic inequalities on health outcomes and service delivery is increasingly researched globally. This study assessed the overall and sector-wise socioeconomic inequality in postnatal home visits made by Public Health Midwives (PHMs) in Sri Lanka and decomposed the observed socioeconomic inequality into potential determinants.MethodsData from the Sri Lanka Demographic and Health Survey (SLDHS) 2006–07 were used. Data were collected from ever-married women who gave birth to their last child in 2001 or later (up to 2007). Whether the PHM visited the home to provide postnatal care within one month of the delivery was the health outcome of interest. Sri Lanka is divided into three sectors (areas) as urban, rural, and estate (plantation) based on the geographical location and the availability of infrastructure facilities. Concentration indices were calculated and concentration curves were plotted to quantify the overall and sector-wise socioeconomic inequality. Decomposition analysis using probit regression was performed to estimate the contribution of potential determinants to the observed socioeconomic inequality.ResultsOverall, 83.0% of women were visited by a PHM within one month of the delivery. The highest number of home visits was reported in the rural sector (84.5%) and lowest was reported from the estate sector (72.4%). A pro-poor, pro-rich, and no inequality were observed across urban, rural, and estate sectors respectively. Wealth had a small contribution to the estimated inequality. Province of residence and the education level of women were the main determinants of the observed socioeconomic inequality.ConclusionAddressing the socioeconomic inequality of postnatal home visits made by PHMs should not be seen as a health system issue alone. The associated social determinants of health should be addressed through a multi-sectoral approach encompassing the principles of primary health care.

Gender Preference and Child Labor in Indonesia

This study examines the prevalence of son preference among ever-married women aged between 15 and 49 years in Indonesia. A continuing longitudinal socioeconomic and health survey data, Indonesia Family Life Survey (IFLS, Wave 4) 2007, were used by implementing multiple classification analysis (MCA) as a method to analyze interrelationships between several predictor variables and a dependent variable within the context of an additive model. The variables used were women’s characteristics including age, education, number of living and died children, covering both rural and urban areas. The findings revealed that son preference remained as the principal determinant for future birth even after controlling the effect of factors and covariates. In addition, factors such as having at least one son in the family, married late in life, and level of educations highly influenced the desire among Indonesian women for future birth.

Association between child marriage and utilization of maternal health care services in India: Evidence from a nationally representative cross-sectional survey

ObjectiveIn an effort to improve utilization of maternal health care services, age at marriage of girls has gain very little attention by the policy maker and programmer. Studies have indicated that child marriage has serious negative consequences on maternal health. Moreover, there is a paucity of research on explaining the links between child marriage and maternal health care utilization. In this study, we aimed to examine the association between child marriage and utilization of maternal health care services using nationally representative sample survey of India. DesignCross-sectional observational study. SettingIndia. ParticipantsA total number of 190,898 ever-married women who had at least one live birth during the last five years preceding the survey from the 2015 to 2016 National Family Health Survey (NFHS) were utilized. MeasurementsOutcome measures: At least four antenatal visits (ANC), ANC visit within first trimester, institutional delivery, delivery by skilled health personnel, and postnatal care (PNC) within 42 days of delivery. Predictor variable: Child marriage. Control variables: Socio-economic and demographic characteristics of women. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were performed for the analyses of the study data. ResultsThe results of our study revealed that women who married at <18 years were significantly less likely to use maternal health care services than those married at ≥18 years even after accounting for socio-economic and demographic characteristics of women. Furthermore, nuanced analysis revealed that the odds of maternity care services is much lower for those women who married at ≤14 years compared with later married groups. ConclusionsThe findings of our study suggest that efforts should be made to increase age at marriage of girls which could have positive impact on utilization of maternal health care services. Moreover, targeted intervention is needed to improve the utilization of maternity care especially among socio-economically vulnerable women.

Physical versus imagined communities: migration and women’s autonomy in India

ABSTRACT India has seen a rise in the proportion of internal migrants between 1983 and 2007-08. Much of this increase is attributed to female marriage migrants. However, there is limited literature analysing the well-being of female marriage migrants in India. This paper seeks to examine whether women’s autonomy in the public sphere is a function of: (a) the geographical community where the woman resides, or (b) imagined communities (the mindset of the communities to which the woman’s family belongs), using multilevel mixed-effects logistic and ordered logistic regression. Analysing data from the India Human Development Survey (IHDS), 2012, for more than 34,000 ever-married women aged 15–49 years, the study finds that the communities in the mind (norms about marriage migration in the caste/sub-caste to which the woman’s family belongs) are more important than the physical communities to which the women have migrated, in relation to certain aspects of women’s physical autonomy and autonomy to participate in civic activities. In contrast, a woman’s economic autonomy is a function of both ‘imagined’ and ‘physical’ communities. Thus, the opportunities available to women who migrate for marriage are shaped by both geographical communities, and more importantly, by the norms in her community about marriage migration.

Menstrual hygiene management and reproductive tract infections: a comparison between rural and urban India

The objective of the research was to compare factors associated with menstrual hygiene management (MHM) between urban and rural ever-married women in India, and its effect on reproductive tract infections (RTIs). A cross-sectional study was performed analysing data from the Indian District Level Household and Facility Survey 2007–08 (DLHS-3). The respondents were ever-married women between 15 and 49 years of age (N = 577,768). A quarter of women from urban areas use improved methods compared with only 4.3 per cent in rural areas. Cloth had the highest prevalence of usage in both areas. Socio-demographic factors associated with the usage of improved methods were almost the same between localities. Women using improved methods were less likely to suffer from RTIs across localities, except for urinary tract infections (UTIs) in rural areas; UTIs (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 0.95 – 1.03 in rural areas and AOR = 0.80 – 0.88 in urban areas). Findings reiterate the complexity of MHM and the need for immediate attention from the government and other agencies to ensure that girls and women have hygienic practices during their menstrual periods which will help prevent RTIs related to poor MHM.

Women's status within the household as a determinant of institutional delivery in Malawi

BackgroundComplications that occur during the time of delivery can be prevented with proper medical care in the health facilities. Although women status is often cited as a factor related to improving maternal health in sub-Saharan Africa. Unfortunately, there is limited data on woman's position within her household and institutional delivery use in Malawi. Thus, this paper examined whether the women's status in the household influences is associated with institution delivery in Malawi. MethodsA cross-sectional study that utilized nationally representative data obtained from the 2010 and 2015–16 Malawi Demographic and Health Surveys were conducted. Sample on ever-married women (4273) in 2010 and (2626) in 2015–16 aged 15–49 years were analyzed. The multivariate analyses were conducted using two-level multilevel logistic regression fitting generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs). ResultsThe GLMMs shows that women's education status, intimate partner violence, women's age, household wealth and media exposure were significantly associated with institutional delivery in 2010 whilst women's decision on how to spend money, women's age, husband's educational level, household wealth, community women's education, community distance to official health facility were significantly associated with institutional delivery in 2015–16. ConclusionsThe study findings recommend that policy actions that increase women's status and position within the household could increase institutional delivery in Malawi.

Intimate Partner Violence in Relation to Husband Characteristics and Women Empowerment: Evidence from Nepal.

The purpose of this study is to assess the magnitude of intimate partner violence (IPV) and associated factors among women in Nepal. The secondary data from the Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) 2016 was used. This study was confined to the respondents selected for the domestic violence module. The association between experience of IPV ‘ever’ and ‘in the past year’ with selected factors were examined by using Chi-square test, followed by multivariate logistic regression. Complex sample analysis procedure was adopted to adjust for multi-stage sampling design, cluster weight, and sample weight. The result revealed that 26.3% of ever-married women experienced any form of IPV at some point in their lives, while only 13.7% has experienced any form of IPV in the past year. The factors associated with both ‘lifetime’ and ‘past year’ experience of IPV includes women witnessing parental violence during their childhood, the husband being drunk frequently, women being afraid of their husband most of the times, and women whose husbands shows marital control behavior. Women’s experiencing IPV was associated more with husband related factors than with women’s empowerment indicators. Reducing IPV requires a commitment to changing the norms that promote the husband’s behavior of controlling his wives and beating her.

Double burden of malnutrition among ever-married women in Bangladesh: a pooled analysis

BackgroundEvidences show that the burden of overweight and obesity is escalating in developing countries with predominant burden of underweight. The coexistence of underweight and overweight/obesity is known as double burden of malnutrition. Recent scanty studies confirmed that Bangladesh is currently experiencing augmented overweight and obesity as well as abating underweight. The present study aimed at assessing the changes of prevalence of overweight/obesity and underweight from 2004 to 2014 and investigated the socio-demographic correlates of being overweight/obese and underweight among ever-married women age 15–49 years.MethodsData were collected from four consecutive Demographic and Health Surveys conducted in Bangladesh in 2004 (N = 11,173), 2007 (N = 10,993), 2011 (N = 17,749), 2014 (N = 17,690). Multinomial logistic regression model has been used to determine association between different socio-demographic predictors with overweight/obesity and underweight among ever-married women age 15–49 years considering normal weight as reference category.ResultsThe prevalence of underweight decreased by 43.2% (from 32.2% in 2004 to 18.3% in 2014) and 130.5% increase in overweight and obesity (from 10.5% in 2004 to 24.2% in 2014) were found over the ten years period. Age, educational status, wealth index and year were positively associated with overweight and obesity and negatively associated with underweight. Also, ‘not being married’ status for rural women were positively associated with underweight and negatively associated with overweight and obesity. Rural women were less likely to be overweight and obese (OR = 0.7, 95% CI: 0.7–0.8) while more likely to be underweight (OR = 1.1, 95% CI: 1.1–1.2) relative to urban women respectively. The likelihood of being overweight and obese was 4.5 times (95% CI: 4.1–4.9) higher among women who were in richest quintile compared to poorest women. They were also less likely to be underweight (OR = 0.4, 95% CI: 0.3–0.4) relative to same reference category.ConclusionThe double burden of malnutrition is evidently prevailing in Bangladesh. Over the ten years period, overweight and obesity has been raised tremendously but underweight did not fall significantly. This study suggests that strategies for preventing both underweight and overweight/obesity simultaneously among reproductive women need to be implemented considering regional context and their socioeconomic status (SES).

Prevalence and Predictors of Violence Against Women in Pakistan

Violence against Pakistani women occurs at an alarming prevalence that reflects a significant risk to the health of women and families. Understanding violence against women in Pakistan comes with methodological and cultural complexities. Many of the studies examining prevalence and predictors of violence against women tend to utilize convenience samples contributing to the possibility of an inflated prevalence. Due to the patriarchal family structure and cultural context, domestic violence is normalized resulting in extremely low reporting rates. The present study utilizes a sample of ever-married Pakistani women collected across five provinces to shed light on the prevalence and predictors of women that experience domestic violence (emotional or physical abuse). Data were obtained from the 2012-2013 Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey including a large sample of Pakistani women from five provinces (Sindh, Punjab, Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Gilgit Baltistan). Binary Linear regressions were conducted to examine how intrinsic variables (age, education, region, urban/rural, type of marital relationship, and wealth) predicted experiencing emotional or physical abuse from one's husband within the past year. Approximately, 20% of women endorsed experiencing physical violence and 28% endorsed experiencing emotional violence. Results found that educational level, wealth, and type of marital relationship were associated with a higher likelihood of experiencing some form of physical or emotional violence. Implications from this study support policy interventions aimed at education within the family, linking women with resources, and continued investment in the education of young women. Interventions would be best targeted in low wealth regions with a special emphasis on rural areas.

Marital Rape and HIV Risk in Uganda: The Impact of Women's Empowerment Factors.

This study used Uganda Demographic Health Survey data (2011) to examine the role of women's empowerment in reducing HIV risk among married women who experienced sexual violence in Uganda. The sample size was 8,674 ever-married women aged 15-49 years. Significant differences were revealed for marital rape, women's empowerment variables, and reducing HIV risk according to sociodemographic characteristics. Women's labor force participation partially mediated the relationship between sexual violence and reducing HIV risk, but decision making did not. Findings highlight the need for the development and implementation of policies and programs to address marital rape and reduce HIV risk within institutions of marriage.

Explaining the links between child marriage and intimate partner violence: Evidence from Ghana.

This study examined the relationship between child marriage and intimate partner violence (IPV) in Ghana, looking specifically for possible mechanisms driving the relationship. Nationally representative cross-sectional data were collected from 2289 ever-married Ghanaian women and analysed using random-effects regression techniques. Women who married as children differed significantly from those who did not in their socio-economic characteristics, attitudes to societal gender norms and autonomy. Compared to those who married as adults, women who married as children had lower levels of education, were more likely to endorse patriarchal gender norms and had lower levels of autonomy within the household. Results also showed significant relationships between child marriage and three dimensions of IPV (physical, sexual and emotional). However, for physical and sexual violence, this relationship was completely mediated by differences in the socio-economic characteristics of the women, their attitude to gender norms and their autonomy within the household. Researchers must pay attention to these intermediary factors when theorizing the relationship between child marriage and IPV. Policy makers in Ghana must ensure that young girls receive formal education and have the self-efficacy and skills to reject patriarchal gendered norms that threaten their security and well-being.

Contraceptive behavior among ever-married reproductive age women in the estate sector in the district of Ratnapura, Sri Lanka

Background: Modern family planning (FP) methods remain the most effective means of reducing unmet need and its consequences including unplanned pregnancies. Objective: The objective of this study was to determine the contraceptive practice and unmet need for FP among 15–49-year-old ever-married women in estate sector in Ratnapura district. Materials and Methods: A community-based descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted using interviewer-administered questionnaire to assess contraceptive behavior among 15–49-year-old ever-married women in estate sector. Results: Contraceptive prevalence for the study group (n = 818) was 67.7% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 64.5–71.5) with the prevalence of 65.4% (95% CI: 62.0–68.7) for modern methods and 2.3% (95% CI: 1.5–3.4) for natural and traditional methods. The prevalence individual methods were 22.75% for female sterilization, 14.91% for injectables, 14.06% for oral contraceptives, 6.36% for intrauterine devices, 5.38% for subdermal implants, 1.85% for condoms, and 0.01% male sterilization. The prevalence of unmet need for FP was 16.3% (95% CI: 13.8–18.7) (n = 133) while that for spacing was 6.6% (95% CI: 5.4–7.8) (n = 53) and for limiting was 9.7 (95% CI: 8.2–11.2) (n = 80). Unmet need for modern methods was 18.8% (95% CI: 15.9–21.3) (n = 152). Reasons for unmet need were infrequent sex (21.5%), fear of side effects (18.6%), and low perceived risk of pregnancy (16.6%). Conclusions: Although contraceptive prevalence is high in estates, existence of high level of unmet need with reasons related to lack of awareness indicates the need of intervention studies to reduce unmet need and its consequences.

Awareness regarding pre-conception and pre-natal diagnostic techniques act among women in a rural community of Puducherry

Context: Child sex ratio of the nation has been declining since few decades. Aims: The objectives of this study are to find out awareness about Pre-conception and Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (PC-PNDT) act among ever-married women and to determine their sociodemographic factors influencing this awareness. Settings and Designs: This was a cross-sectional study conducted at a rural primary health center of Puducherry. Subjects and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted at a rural primary health center in Puducherry among 200 ever-married women in reproductive age group. Information regarding their awareness about PC-PNDT Act was collected using a semi-structured questionnaire. Statistical Analysis Used: Chi square-test was done for analyzing the categorical data. Results: Among the ever-married women, about 30 (15%) were not aware about the provisions of PC-PNDT Act, while 170 (85%) were aware about it. No significant association was found between sociodemographic variables and awareness about the Act. Conclusions: Majority of the ever-married women in the study setting were aware of the provisions of PC-PNDT Act.

Intimate Partner Violence among Ever-married Women Treated for Depression at a Rural Health Center in Bengaluru Urban District.

Background:Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a risk factor for depression among women. Spousal alcoholism and marital quality are associated with both depression and spousal abuse Knowledge about the factors contributing to IPV in depression will enable us to have interventions to address IPV in tandem with treating depression.Objectives:(1) To estimate the prevalence of IPV in women treated for depression in a rural community health-care facility in Bengaluru Urban District. (2) To assess the association between IPV and various other factors in women treated for depression in a rural community health care facility.Methodology:A cross-sectional study was conducted among ever-married women above 18 years, registered under mental health program in the mental health clinic in Mugalur, Karnataka, and currently on treatment for depression. The women who consented were interviewed using structured questionnaires – WHOQOL-BREF, standard of living index, Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, Index of Spouse Abuse, family interview for genetic studies for reported alcohol use, and marital quality scale.Results:The mean age of the study participants was 49.7 ± 13.2 years. The prevalence of physical IPV and non-physical IPV was found to be 18% and 7%, respectively. Marital quality was significantly lower among women who experienced IPV. Women with husbands who ever used alcohol were found to have six times more risk of experiencing physical IPV, odd ratio 6.193 (1.595, 24.047).Conclusion:Health education, involvement of self-help groups, and awareness programs are required to alleviate IPV.

Perception and Practice of Family Planning: An Anthropological Study among the assamese Caste Hindus and Muslim Population in Goalpara District, Assam

The present paper made an attempt to make a study of the impact of socio-cultural characteristics on family planning behaviour of the Assamese Caste Hindus and the Muslim population in the Goalpara district of Assam. The study was conducted in 2015 in six villages of Goalpara district among 600 ever-married women, 300 from each population groups within the age group 15-49 years. The study reveals that there are wide differences between the knowledge of family planning and its practices in the two population groups. The proportion of family planning user is comparatively higher in Assamese Caste Hindu population compared to the Muslim population. In both the population groups, temporary spacing method is widely prevalent compared to the permanent method of contraception. Findings of the study shows that socio-cultural background like occupational status, educational attainment, economic condition, opinion about ideal number of children, etc plays an important role in determining the family planning behavior of the two studied populations.

Domestic violence against women workers in selected tea estates of South India

Background: Violence against women is an important public health problem, due to its consequences on women health. There is a considerable variation in the prevalence of domestic violence across the states and different settings in India. Objectives: The objectives of the study were to estimate the prevalence of different forms of domestic violence and determine the associated factors among women working in tea estates. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in two tea estates in Tamil Nadu. All (266) ever-married women workers aged 15–49 years were included in the study. Data were collected using a pre-designed interview schedule including sociodemography and physical, psychological, and sexual domains of domestic violence. It was developed using the National Family Health Survey 3 interview schedule and the World Health Organization multi-country study on women’s health and life experiences questionnaire version 10. Results: The prevalence of domestic violence was 65%, while specifically psychological, physical, and sexual violence were 63.5%, 44.1%, and 4.1%, respectively. Domestic violence was significantly associated with socioeconomic status, spousal literacy status, age at marriage, and alcohol use (P < 0.05). Any form of violence and psychological violence were twice as common with illiterate (unadjusted odds ratio [OR]: 2.6; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.4–4.9) (unadjusted OR: 2.4; 95% CI: 1.1–4.9) and a spouse who consumed alcohol (unadjusted OR: 2.7; 95% CI: 1.6–4.6) (unadjusted OR: 2.5; 95% CI: 1.5–4.2), respectively. Conclusion: The prevalence of all forms of domestic violence was high among women in the selected two tea estates in South India. Significant association was found with spousal characteristics. This calls for stringent enforcement of laws and educating men toward changing the social attitude toward violence against women.