Rates Of Evaporative Water Loss Research Articles

The effects of humidity on thermoregulatory physiology of a small songbird.

Scholander-Irving curves describe the relationship between ambient temperature and metabolic rate and are fundamental to understanding the energetic demands of homeothermy. However, Scholander-Irving curves are typically measured in dry air, which is not representative of the humidity many organisms experience in nature. Consequently, it is unclear (1) whether Scholander-Irving curves (especially below thermoneutrality) are altered by humidity, given the effects of humidity on thermal properties of air, and (2) whether physiological responses associated with Scholander-Irving curves in the lab reflect organismal performance in humid field conditions. We used laboratory experiments and biophysical models to test the effects of humidity on the thermoregulatory physiology of tree swallows (Tachycineta bicolor). We also tested whether physiological responses measured under lab conditions were correlated with field body temperatures and nestling provisioning rates. We found that humidity reduced rates of evaporative water loss but did not have large effects on body temperature or metabolic rate, suggesting that swallows can decouple evaporative cooling, body temperature and metabolic rate. Although the effect of humidity on metabolic rate in the lab was small, our biophysical models indicated that energetic costs of thermoregulation were ∼8% greater in simulations that used metabolic rates from birds in humid compared with dry conditions. Finally, we found mixed evidence that physiological responses measured in the lab under humid or dry conditions were associated with body temperature and nest provisioning rates in the field. Our results help clarify the effect of humidity on endotherm thermoregulation, which may help forecast organismal responses to environmental change.

The heat is on: Thermoregulatory and evaporative cooling patterns of desert-dwelling bats

For small endotherms inhabiting desert ecosystems, defending body temperatures (Tb) is challenging as they contend with extremely high ambient temperatures (Ta) and limited standing water. In the arid zone, bats may thermoconform whereby Tb varies with Ta, or may evaporatively cool themselves to maintain Tb < Ta. We used an integrative approach that combined both temperature telemetry and flow through respirometry to investigate the ecological and physiological strategies of lesser long-eared bats (Nyctophilus geoffroyi) in Australia's arid zone. We predicted individuals would exhibit desert-adapted thermoregulatory patterns (i.e., thermoconform to prioritise water conservation), and that females would be more conservative with their water reserves for evaporative cooling compared to males. Temperature telemetry data indicated that free-ranging N. geoffroyi were heterothermic (Tskin = 18.9–44.9 °C) during summer and thermoconformed over a wide range of temperatures, likely to conserve water and energy during the day. Experimentally, at high Tas, females maintained significantly lower Tb and resting metabolic rates, despite lower evaporative water loss (EWL) rates compared to males. Females only increased EWL at experimental Ta = 42.5 °C, significantly higher than males (40.7 °C), and higher than any bat species yet recorded. During the hottest day of this study, our estimates suggest the water required for evaporative cooling ranged from 18.3% (females) and 25.5% (males) of body mass. However, if we extrapolate these results to a recent heatwave these values increase to 36.5% and 47.3%, which are likely beyond lethal limits. It appears this population is under selective pressures to conserve water reserves and that these pressures are more pronounced in females than males. Bats in arid ecosystems are threatened by both current and future heatwaves and we recommend future conservation efforts focus on protecting current roost trees and creating artificial standing water sites near vulnerable populations.

Comparing the Contributions of Cutaneous and Respiratory Evaporative Water Loss to Cooling in Anna’s Hummingbirds (Calypte anna) Under Fasted and Fed Conditions

During high-temperature periods, endothermic animals evaporate water from the body surface to cool down. The two primary routes of evaporative water loss are: (1) evaporating water from the skin; and (2) evaporation from the respiratory surfaces during breathing and panting. In smaller avian species like Anna's hummingbirds ( Calypte anna), the higher cutaneous surface area to volume ratio presents an opportunity for the skin to become an important avenue for evaporative cooling, possibly becoming a major site. Additionally, hummingbirds feed on water-rich nectar. As a result, they eliminate surplus water through urination, but significant evaporation can also occur through their skin and respiratory system. Thus, total evaporative water loss could rise significantly for these animals when in a hydrated state. Here, this study investigates the relative importance of the two evaporative water loss routes (cutaneous and respiratory) of Anna's hummingbirds in fed and fasted states. We hypothesize that cutaneous evaporation has a high contribution to total evaporation. Moreover, we predict that evaporative water loss rates are higher under the fed (hydrated) condition relative to fasted states. Metabolic and evaporation rates from the head and the body were measured separately in a partitioned chamber at 30°C. Birds were fed immediately prior to entry into respirometry, and the transition from fed to fasted states was recorded over a two-hour period. Total evaporative water loss nearly doubled in the fed versus fasted condition (1.75 ± 0.85 mg H2O/min and 0.97 ± 0.28 mg H2O/min, respectively), with respiratory water loss being significantly higher in the fed compared to the fasted condition (0.87 ± 0.38 mg H2O/min versus 0.42 ± 0.12 mg H2O/min, respectively). On the other hand, the body had a large, but non-significant, difference in evaporative water loss rates between the fed and fasted conditions (0.88 ± 0.55 mg H2O/min and 0.57 ± 0.17 mg H2O/min, respectively). Importantly, cutaneous evaporative water loss made up half of the total evaporation in both the fed and fasted conditions. These results demonstrate that evaporative water loss is modulated by hydration status at both the respiratory and cutaneous surfaces. Furthermore, cutaneous evaporation makes up approximately the same proportion of total evaporation to other birds at thermoneutral temperatures. Future work manipulating ambient temperature in conjunction with hydration status will further our understanding of the relative importance of cutaneous evaporation for these small-bodied birds. Funded by the Genentech Foundations Scholarship, CSUPERB New Investigator Grant, and San Francisco State University. This is the full abstract presented at the American Physiology Summit 2024 meeting and is only available in HTML format. There are no additional versions or additional content available for this abstract. Physiology was not involved in the peer review process.

The Effect of Soluble Sugar Degradation on the Evaporation of Compacted Clay

In arid climates, evaporation and water loss in surface soil can lead to the development of shrinkage cracks in the soil. The crack network in contaminated soil sites can become a rapid pathway for the infiltration and transport of contaminations, thereby increasing the range of soil contamination. Dense contaminated clay samples were prepared by using glucose as a representative soluble sugar of domestic source contaminations. Through indoor evaporation simulation tests, the effect of soluble sugar anaerobic degradation on the water loss, deformation, and crack growth of compacted clay was analyzed, and the mechanism of this effect was revealed. The results showed that glucose increased the water-holding capacity of clay, while the anaerobic degradation of glucose decreased the water-holding capacity of clay. Although glucose anaerobic degradation reduced the overall deformation of dense clay, it promoted the development of evaporative cracks on the surface of dense clay. Soluble sugar anaerobic degradation mainly affected the evaporative cracking of clay by “forming hydrogen bonds to reduce the rate of evaporative water loss in clay” and “generating CO2 to alter the structure of the clay”.

Ecophysiological trait variation in desert versus Mediterranean populations of a gecko

AbstractPopulations inhabiting several biomes may experience different abiotic and biotic conditions, exerting local selection pressures. Temperature and water regimes are interconnected variables, that may differ between biomes, and greatly influence ecophysiological traits, such as metabolic and evaporative water loss rates. We hypothesized that Ptyodactylus guttatus (Sinai Fan‐fingered Gecko) individuals, which occupy the Mediterranean and desert biomes across Israel, would follow the “metabolic cold adaptation” hypothesis and be adapted to the microclimate in the biome they inhabit. We thus predicted that desert individuals would prefer lower temperatures, and have lower resting metabolic rates and evaporative water loss rates at higher ambient temperatures than Mediterranean individuals. We also predicted that Mediterranean individuals would have a better body condition than individuals from the desert, because of higher primary productivity in the Mediterranean biome, and would therefore have higher mite loads. We further predicted that geckos from the desert would have longer limbs, enabling them to lose more heat to the environment, according to Allen's rule. To test these hypotheses, we measured the temperature preferences, field body temperatures, resting metabolic rates, evaporative water loss rates, body conditions, mite loads, and limb lengths of 82 P. guttatus individuals collected from four localities two from the desert biome and two from the Mediterranean biome. There were no significant differences in any of the tested traits when comparing between biomes. However, we found some differences in the evaporative water loss rates, body temperatures, body condition, and forelimb lengths between the northernmost and southernmost, and driest and wettest localities, supporting some of our predictions. Our results highlight the importance of the resolution of the analysis. Although some ecophysiological traits of P. guttatus seem to be conserved across localities and biomes, thermal plasticity in these traits may have helped this species reach its current distribution and occupy two biomes.

Effects of Prairie Degradation and Restoration on Box Turtle Thermal Ecology

Prairie habitat loss in the United States has led to population declines in many prairie-associated species, including Ornate Box Turtles (Terrapene ornata). Northwest Arkansas is an intergrade zone between the prairie-dwelling T. ornata and the more forest-associated Three-Toed Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina). As such, limited information exists on the potential differences in physiology and thermal ecology between the two box turtle species and how those differences might influence their habitat use. We addressed gaps in our knowledge of the thermal and spatial ecology of T. ornata and T. carolina with a three-part study. First, we compared the thermal profiles of refugia, open, and vegetated microhabitats across degraded prairie, restored prairie, and adjacent forest macrohabitats using operative temperature models and a linear mixed effect model. Second, we measured total evaporative water loss of both species across a range of body sizes. Finally, we fitted a subset of turtles with iButton data loggers and monitored them in the field to examine carapace temperatures and habitat use. Operative temperature models recorded high, largely homogeneous temperatures across microhabitats in degraded prairie and heterogeneous temperatures across restored prairie microhabitats, while forest habitat maintained stable, cool temperatures. Both species exhibited similar evaporative water loss rates; however, T. ornata experienced a broader range of temperatures in the field. Terrapene ornata were exclusively found in prairie habitat, whereas T. carolina was often found in forested habitats and subsurface refugia. Our results demonstrate key differences in box turtle thermal biology and highlight suboptimal thermal characteristics in degraded prairie and forest habitat that should be considered in prairie restoration and management for T. ornata conservation.

Evaporative cooling via panting and its metabolic and water balance costs for lizards in the American Southwest.

In lizards there is considerable variation in the ability to dissipate environmental/endogenous heat loads through evaporative cooling via panting, which effects how long lizards can spend exposed to high solar heat loads. We recently described the differing capacities of lizards to depress body temperature (Tb) through evaporative cooling via panting. Here, we link panting and Tb depression with rates of evaporative water loss and its metabolic costs under high heat loads. We used flow-through respirometry to measure evaporative water loss rates and metabolism of 17 lizard species from the American Southwest while simultaneously measuring Tb. We exposed lizards to air temperatures (Ta) ranging from 35°C to their critical thermal maximum (CTmax) while marking the onset of panting. We then estimated pre-panting Q10 values for metabolism to partition increases in metabolism associated with the van't Hoff effect from the mechanical cost of panting with increasing heat loads. We found that evaporative cooling costs substantially varied among species, with panting effort significantly affecting lizards' evaporative capacity. Lizard evaporation rates ranged from 0.32 to 1.5 g H2Oh-1, with individuals losing as much as 6%h-1 of body mass while panting. Lizards also experienced an increase of up to 7.9-fold in metabolic rate while panting, although the overall energetic costs of panting remained relatively low compared with evaporative water costs. Across species, there was a significant positive relationship between the overall rate of evaporative heat loss and the maximum Ta-Tb gradient a species could maintain. While evaporative cooling may be an effective mechanism for reducing Tb and extending activity in hot environments for many species, it has significant metabolic and water balance costs that should be considered, as habitats with high environmental heat loads can be especially costly to an animal's water budgets.

Evaporative water loss from dairy cows in climate-controlled respiration chambers

The effects of ambient temperature (AT) on total evaporative water loss from dairy cows at different relative humidity (RH) and air velocity (AV) levels were studied. Twenty Holstein dairy cows with an average parity of 2.0 ± 0.7 and body weight of 687 ± 46 kg participated in the study. Two climate-controlled respiration chambers were used. The experimental indoor climate was programmed to follow a diurnal pattern with AT at night being 9°C lower than during the day. Night AT was gradually increased from 7 to 21°C and day AT was increased from 16°C to 30°C within an 8-d period, both with an incremental change of 2°C/d. The effect of 3 RH levels with a diurnal pattern were studied as well, with low values during the day and high values during the night: low (day, 30%; night, 50%), medium (day, 45%; night, 70%), and high (day, 60%; night, 90%). The effects of AV were studied during the daytime at 3 levels: no fan (0.1 m/s), fan at medium speed (1.0 m/s), and fan at high speed (1.5 m/s). The medium and high AV levels were only combined with medium RH. In total, there were 5 treatments with 4 replicates each. The animals had free access to feed and water. Based on the water balance principle inside the respiration chambers, the total evaporative water loss from dairy cows at a daily level was quantified by measuring the mass of water in the incoming and outgoing air, condensed water, added water from a humidifier, and evaporative water from a wet floor, drinking bowl, manure reservoir, and water bucket. Water evaporation from a sample skin area was measured with a ventilated skin box, and water evaporation, through respiration with a face mask. The results show that RH/AV levels had no significant effect on total evaporative water loss, whereas the interaction effect between RH/AV with AT was significant. Cows at a high RH had a tendency for a lower increasing rate of evaporative water loss compared with cows at a low RH (0.61 vs. 0.79 kg/d per 1°C increase of AT). Cows at medium and high AV levels had a greater increasing rate than cows at low AV (0.91 and 0.95 vs. 0.71 kg/d per 1°C increase of AT, respectively). The increase of evaporative heat loss from dairy cows was mainly a result of the increase in evaporation (of sweat) from the skin. The skin water evaporation determined with the water balance method (less evaporation from respiration) and the ventilated skin box method showed no significant difference. The implication of this study is that cows at a high AT depend mainly on evaporative cooling from the skin. The ventilated skin box method, measuring only a small part of the skin during a short period during the day, can be a convenient and accurate way to determine the total cutaneous evaporative water loss from cows.

Chemical and Physical Properties of Organic Bedding Materials

Highlights Finely ground particles absorb more water than medium or coarse particles. Corn stover and wheat straw have highest water holding capacity and a moderate rate of evaporative water loss. Corn cobs absorb the least amount of water but retain the water longer than other bedding materials. Corn stover, wheat straw, and soybean stover have highest fertilizer value. Considering all characteristics, wheat straw, corn stover, and soybean stover are the most favorable materials to use in livestock housing systems. Abstract. Physical and chemical characteristics of organic bedding materials determine how well they will absorb and retain moisture and may influence the environment in livestock facilities where bedding is used. The objective of this study was to determine water holding capacity (WHC) and rate of evaporative water loss (EWL) of organic materials used as bedding in livestock facilities. Corn stover, soybean stover, wheat straw, switch grass, paper, corn cobs, and wood (pine and cedar) were evaluated; coarse, medium, and fine particle sizes of each bedding material were measured. The WHC was determined by submerging bedding materials in permeable nylon bags for 1, 3, 5, 10, 20, and 30 min, and 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h. Generally, finely ground particles had higher WHC (P &amp;lt; 0.05) than the medium or coarsely ground particles of the same material. Corn stover (3.2 g g-1) and wheat straw (3.3 g g-1) had the highest WHC. Switch grass, dry cedar, green cedar, and corn cobs (1.4, 1.5, 1.6 and 1.9 g g-1, respectively) absorbed the least amount of water. Corn cobs retained water the longest when EWL was measured at 100°C, 25°C, and 15°C (6.0, 33.0, and 38.1 days, respectively). Based on N, P, and K content, corn stover, wheat straw, and soybean stover bedding had the highest fertilizer value of the bedding materials studied. Considering all characteristics, wheat straw, corn stover, and soybean stover are the most favorable bedding materials to use in livestock housing systems. Keywords: Bulk density, Corn stover, Evaporative water loss, Soybean stover, Switch grass, Water holding capacity, Wheat straw, Wood chips.

Empirical estimation of skin resistance to water loss in amphibians: agar evaluation as a non-resistance model to evaporation.

Total resistance (rt) to evaporative water loss (EWL) in amphibians is given by the sum of the boundary layer (rb) and the skin resistance (rs). Thus, rs can be determined if the rb component is defined (rs=rt-rb). The use of agar models has become the standard technique to estimate rb under the assumption that the agar surface imposes no barrier to evaporation (rs=0). We evaluated this assumption by determining EWL rates and rb values from exposed surfaces of free water, a physiological solution mimicking the osmotic properties of a generalized amphibian, and agar gels prepared at various concentrations using either water or physiological solution as diluent. Water evaporation was affected by both the presence of solutes and agar concentration. Models prepared with agar at 5% concentration in water provided the most practical and appropriate proxy for the estimation of rb.

Home is where the heat is: Thermoregulation of European bats inhabiting artificial roosts and the threat of heat waves

Abstract Anthropogenic land use changes, such as deforestation and commercial forestry, have substantially reduced natural roost sites for European bats. A common conservation solution is to provide artificial roosts (i.e. bat boxes), but there are concerns that these can become hotter than natural roosts in summer and could be death traps during heat waves. Nevertheless, females of several bat species form maternity colonies in these boxes, thus occupying hotter and more humid microclimates than solitarily roosting males. We tested if cooling efficiency and heat tolerance differ between sexes in European bats, and estimated the evaporative water requirements for bats living in bat boxes during hot summer days. We used indirect calorimetry and thermometry to quantify thermoregulation at high air temperatures (Ta) in four species of verspitilionid bats that regularly occupy artificial roosts. We measured resting metabolic heat production, evaporative water loss rates (EWL) and body temperature (Tb) at Ta between 28°C and 48°C during summer. We predicted that females have higher evaporative cooling efficiency (evaporative heat loss/metabolic heat production) than males, allowing them to reach their heat tolerance limit at higher Ta. We found no sex differences in maximum evaporative cooling efficiency, maximum Tb, and maximum Ta tolerated. However, the patterns of increasing EWL with Ta differed between sexes. Females tolerated higher Ta before increasing EWL than males and then rapidly increased EWL to higher values than males at the maximum Ta tolerated. These sex differences in heat dissipation strategies may reflect varying ecological and physiological constraints associated with different summer roosting habits. Synthesis and applications. Our study revealed that some small European bat species are already at risk of succumbing to lethal dehydration during present‐day heat waves, with daytime evaporative water requirements equivalent to ~30% of body mass in sun‐exposed boxes. For conservation managers working with common European bat species, particularly those in monoculture forests with woodcrete bat‐boxes, our physiologically informed recommendations include positioning boxes in diverse locations varying in aspect and sun exposure. This will ensure thermal heterogeneity of roost sites and provide a wide gradient of microclimate conditions, allowing for roost switching when necessary.

Keeping your cool: thermoregulatory performance and plasticity in desert cricetid rodents.

Small mammals in hot deserts often avoid heat via nocturnality and fossoriality, and are thought to have a limited capacity to dissipate heat using evaporative cooling. Research to date has focused on thermoregulatory responses to air temperatures (Ta) below body temperature (Tb). Consequently, the thermoregulatory performance of small mammals exposed to high Ta is poorly understood, particularly responses across geographic and seasonal scales. We quantified the seasonal thermoregulatory performance of four cricetid rodents (Neotoma albigula, Neotoma lepida, Peromyscus eremicus, Peromyscus crinitus) exposed to high Ta, at four sites in the Mojave Desert. We measured metabolism, evaporative water loss and Tb using flow-through respirometry. When exposed to Ta≥Tb, rodents showed steep increases in Tb, copious salivation and limited evaporative heat dissipation. Most individuals were only capable of maintaining Ta-Tb gradients of ∼1°, resulting in heat tolerance limits (HTLs) in the range Ta=43-45°C. All species exhibited a thermoneutral Tb of ∼35-36°C, and Tb increased to maximal levels of ∼43°C. Metabolic rates and rates of evaporative water loss increased steeply in all species as Ta approached Tb. We also observed significant increases in resting metabolism and evaporative water loss from summer to winter at Ta within and above the thermoneutral zone. In contrast, we found few differences in the thermoregulatory performance within species across sites. Our results suggest that cricetid rodents have a limited physiological capacity to cope with environmental temperatures that exceed Tb and that a rapidly warming environment may increasingly constrain their nocturnal activity.

Reliability of methods to determine cutaneous evaporative water loss rate in furred and fleeced mammals.

We used a high-precision weighing system and flow-through respirometry to quantify cutaneous evaporative water loss rates in woolly sheep (wool thickness, ca. 6.5 cm) and haired goats (coat thickness, ca. 2.5 cm), while simultaneously recording parallel data obtained from (1) a flow-through ventilated capsule, (2) a closed hand-held electronic evaporimeter chamber, and (3) a closed colorimetric paper disc chamber. In comparison to the weighing system and respirometry, used here as a "gold standard" measure of cutaneous evaporative water loss rate, we found relatively good agreement with data obtained from the flow-through ventilated capsules. However, we found poor agreement with data obtained from the closed electronic evaporimeter chambers (underestimated by 60%, on average) and the closed colorimetric paper disc chambers (overestimated by 52%, on average). This deviation was likely associated with a requirement for shaved skin in the closed chamber methods. Our results therefore cast doubt on the validity of the closed chamber methods for measurement of cutaneous evaporative water loss rates in furred and fleeced mammals, and instead show that more accurate values can be obtained using flow-through ventilated capsules.

Conserved ecophysiology despite disparate microclimatic conditions in a gecko.

Microscale differences in the habitats organisms occupy can influence selection regimes and promote intraspecific variation of traits. Temperature-dependent traits can be locally adapted to climatic conditions or be highly conserved and insensitive to directional selection under all but the most extreme regimes, and thus be similar across populations. The opposing slopes of Nahal Oren canyon in the Carmel Mountains, Israel, are strikingly different: the south-facing slope receives intensive solar radiation, is hot and supports mostly annual vegetation, whereas the north-facing slope is ~10°C cooler, more humid, and supports Mediterranean woodland. We examined whether these differences manifest in the thermal physiology of a common gecko species Ptyodactylus guttatus in controlled laboratory conditions. We predicted that geckos from the hotter south-facing slope would prefer higher temperatures, have faster gut passage times, lower metabolic and evaporative water loss rates, and start diel activity earlier compared with north-facing slope conspecifics. Contrary to these predictions, there were no differences between any of the ecophysiological traits in geckos from the opposing slopes. Nevertheless, our data showed that individuals from the north-facing slope were generally more active in earlier hours of the afternoon compared with south-facing individuals. We suggest that P. guttatus individuals disperse between the slopes and either gene-flow or behavioral plasticity deter local adaptation, resulting in similar physiological traits. Perhaps a stronger contrast in climatic conditions and a stronger barrier are needed to result in interpopulation divergence in temperature-dependent traits.

A worldwide and annotated database of evaporative water loss rates in squamate reptiles

AbstractMotivationThe understanding of physiological adaptations, of evolutionary radiations and of ecological responses to global change urges for global, comprehensive databases of the functional traits of extant organisms. The ability to maintain an adequate water balance is a critical functional property influencing the resilience of animal species to climate variation. In terrestrial or semi‐terrestrial organisms, total water loss includes a significant contribution from evaporative water loss (EWL). The analysis of geographic and phylogenetic variation in EWL rates must however account for differences in methods and potential confounding factors, which influence standard measures of whole‐organism water loss. We compiled the global and standardized SquamEWL database of total, respiratory and cutaneous EWL for 325 species and subspecies of squamate reptiles (793 samples and 2,536 estimates) from across the globe. An extensive set of companion data and annotations associated with the EWL measurements of potential value for future investigation, including metabolic rate data, is provided. We present preliminary descriptive statistics for the compiled data, discuss gaps and biases, and identify promising avenues to update, expand and explore this database.Main types of variables containedStandard water loss rates, geographic data, metabolic rates.Spatial locationGlobal.Time periodData were obtained from extant species and were collected between 1945 and 2020.Major taxaReptilia, Squamata including lizards, snakes and amphisbaenians.Level of measurementsIndividual samples of animals from the same species, locality, age class and sex category.Software formatcsv.

Limited heat tolerance in a cold-adapted seabird: implications of a warming Arctic.

ABSTRACTThe Arctic is warming at approximately twice the global rate, with well-documented indirect effects on wildlife. However, few studies have examined the direct effects of warming temperatures on Arctic wildlife, leaving the importance of heat stress unclear. Here, we assessed the direct effects of increasing air temperatures on the physiology of thick-billed murres (Uria lomvia), an Arctic seabird with reported mortalities due to heat stress while nesting on sun-exposed cliffs. We used flow-through respirometry to measure the response of body temperature, resting metabolic rate, evaporative water loss and evaporative cooling efficiency (the ratio of evaporative heat loss to metabolic heat production) in murres while experimentally increasing air temperature. Murres had limited heat tolerance, exhibiting: (1) a low maximum body temperature (43.3°C); (2) a moderate increase in resting metabolic rate relative that within their thermoneutral zone (1.57 times); (3) a small increase in evaporative water loss rate relative that within their thermoneutral zone (1.26 times); and (4) a low maximum evaporative cooling efficiency (0.33). Moreover, evaporative cooling efficiency decreased with increasing air temperature, suggesting murres were producing heat at a faster rate than they were dissipating it. Larger murres also had a higher rate of increase in resting metabolic rate and a lower rate of increase in evaporative water loss than smaller murres; therefore, evaporative cooling efficiency declined with increasing body mass. As a cold-adapted bird, murres' limited heat tolerance likely explains their mortality on warm days. Direct effects of overheating on Arctic wildlife may be an important but under-reported impact of climate change.

Bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) with reduced scalation lose water faster but do not have substantially different thermal preferences.

Whether scales reduce cutaneous evaporative water loss in lepidosaur reptiles (Superorder Lepidosauria) such as lizards and snakes has been a contentious issue for nearly half a century. Furthermore, while many studies have looked at whether dehydration affects thermal preference in lepidosaurs, far fewer have examined whether normally hydrated lepidosaurs can assess their instantaneous rate of evaporative water loss and adjust their thermal preference to compensate in an adaptive manner. We tested both of these hypotheses using three captive-bred phenotypes of bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) sourced from the pet trade: 'wild-types' with normal scalation, 'leatherbacks' exhibiting scales of reduced prominence, and scaleless bearded dragons referred to as 'silkbacks'. Silkbacks on average lost water evaporatively at about twice the rate that wild-types did. Leatherbacks on average were closer in their rates of evaporative water loss to silkbacks than they were to wild-types. Additionally, very small (at most ∼1°C) differences in thermal preference existed between the three phenotypes that were not statistically significant. This suggests a lack of plasticity in thermal preference in response to an increase in the rate of evaporative water loss, and may be reflective of a thermal 'strategy' as employed by thermoregulating bearded dragons that prioritises immediate thermal benefits over the threat of future dehydration. The results of this study bolster an often-discounted hypothesis regarding the present adaptive function of scales and have implications for the applied fields of animal welfare and conservation.

Urban rooftop-nesting Common Nighthawk chicks tolerate high temperatures by hyperthermia with relatively low rates of evaporative water loss

Abstract Heat tolerance for many birds under climate and land use change scenarios could be compromised in the future. Common Nighthawks (Chordeiles minor) belong to the Caprimulgiformes, a generally heat-tolerant order, but few studies have assessed heat tolerance in Caprimulgiform chicks, which might be particularly susceptible to heat stress. In the midwestern United States, nighthawks primarily nest on flat graveled rooftops in urban areas, as natural nesting habitats are limited. Urban rooftop-nesting nighthawks are likely exposed to higher environmental temperatures than birds nesting at more thermally buffered natural sites, and evaporative cooling might be impeded by the typically high summer humidity in their Midwest breeding range. This combination of heat and humidity might negatively impact heat tolerance of nighthawk chicks. We exposed 7- to 14-day-old nighthawk chicks (n = 15) from rooftop nests to ambient temperatures (Tas) up to 51°C and at typical summer dew points. Chicks initiated gular flutter at a mean ambient temperature of 42.4 ± 3.4°C (mean ± SE). Evaporative water loss (EWL) rates increased significantly with increasing temperature above 44.0 ± 1.5°C. Chicks showed little evidence of lower and upper bounds of the thermal neutral zone over the range of temperatures (30–44°C) for which we measured oxygen consumption. Body mass loss was significantly positively correlated with temperature during heat exposure trials. Chicks tolerated Tas up to 51°C and body temperatures (Tbs) up to 48°C, which, along with the high temperatures at which gular flutter and high rates of EWL were initiated, suggest that nighthawk chicks are tolerant of high ambient temperatures, even with relatively high humidity. Given the high rates of mass loss and high Tbs at hot ambient temperatures, chick heat tolerance mechanisms could be detrimental for rooftop-nesting nighthawks given projected increasing trends for both heat and humidity in the midwestern United States.

An integrative analysis of the short-term effects of tail autotomy on thermoregulation and dehydration rates in wall lizards.

Maintaining body temperature is essential for the optimal performance of physiological functions. Ectotherms depend on external heat sources to thermoregulate. However, thermoregulation may be constrained by body condition and hydration state. Autotomy (i.e., the voluntary shed of a body part) evolved in various animal lineages and allowed surviving certain events (such as predator attacks), but it may affect body condition and volume/surface ratios, increase dehydration and constrain thermoregulation. In the framework of a general analysis of the evolution of autotomy, here we assessed the effects of tail loss on the thermal preferences and evaporative water loss rates (EWL) in the lizard Podarcis bocagei, integrating the thermal and hydric factors. We did not observe shifts in the thermal preferences of experimentally autotomized lizards when compared to the controls, which contradicted the hypothesis that they would raise preferred temperature to increase metabolic rates and accelerate regeneration. Evaporative water loss rates were also similar for tailed and tailless individuals, suggesting negligible increase of water loss through the injury and no specific ecophysiological responses after autotomy. Therefore, the changes observed in autotomized lizards in the field are to be considered primarily behavioural, rather than physiological, and thermoregulation could be secondarily affected by behavioural compensations for an increased predation risk after autotomy. Functional studies are necessary to understand how lizards' interaction with the environment is altered after autotomy, and further studies including different dehydration levels would be useful to fully understand the effect of water shortage on lizards' performance after caudal autotomy.

Limited heat tolerance in an Arctic passerine: Thermoregulatory implications for cold-specialized birds in a rapidly warming world.

Arctic animals inhabit some of the coldest environments on the planet and have evolved physiological mechanisms for minimizing heat loss under extreme cold. However, the Arctic is warming faster than the global average and how well Arctic animals tolerate even moderately high air temperatures (T a) is unknown.Using flow‐through respirometry, we investigated the heat tolerance and evaporative cooling capacity of snow buntings (Plectrophenax nivalis; ≈31 g, N = 42), a cold specialist, Arctic songbird. We exposed buntings to increasing T a and measured body temperature (T b), resting metabolic rate (RMR), rates of evaporative water loss (EWL), and evaporative cooling efficiency (the ratio of evaporative heat loss to metabolic heat production).Buntings had an average (±SD) T b of 41.3 ± 0.2°C at thermoneutral T a and increased T b to a maximum of 43.5 ± 0.3°C. Buntings started panting at T a of 33.2 ± 1.7°C, with rapid increases in EWL starting at T a = 34.6°C, meaning they experienced heat stress when air temperatures were well below their body temperature. Maximum rates of EWL were only 2.9× baseline rates at thermoneutral T a, a markedly lower increase than seen in more heat‐tolerant arid‐zone species (e.g., ≥4.7× baseline rates). Heat‐stressed buntings also had low evaporative cooling efficiencies, with 95% of individuals unable to evaporatively dissipate an amount of heat equivalent to their own metabolic heat production.Our results suggest that buntings’ well‐developed cold tolerance may come at the cost of reduced heat tolerance. As the Arctic warms, and this and other species experience increased periods of heat stress, a limited capacity for evaporative cooling may force birds to increasingly rely on behavioral thermoregulation, such as minimizing activity, at the expense of diminished performance or reproductive investment.