Dietary Exposure Evaluation Research Articles

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in food and beverages: determination by LC-HRMS and occurrence in products from the Belgian market

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are industrial chemicals encompassing thousands of compounds. Due to their persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic character, PFAS have become environmental contaminants, and exposure to these chemicals may lead to adverse health effects. This study aimed to provide a sensitive analytical method for the quantification of 25 PFAS in food including food for the young population and beverages, and to gather the missing occurrence data for the dietary exposure evaluation for the Belgian population. More than a decade ago, such assessment was performed only for PFOS and PFOA and is currently outdated. For the determination of PFAS in foodstuffs, an extraction based on a “quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe” (QuEChERS) protocol and combined with a two-step purification using solid-phase extraction (SPE) was optimised. The quantitative analysis was performed by liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). The method was validated, and the achieved limits of quantification (LOQs) ranged from 0.002 to 0.3 μg/kg, with the exception of HFPO-DA (1 μg/kg). The LC-HRMS analysis of 268 food products from the Belgian market demonstrated that 43% of samples contained at least one PFAS with a maximum of eleven PFAS measured in a stew of wild pork. PFOS was the most detected compound found in 19% of samples, followed by PFBA (18%) and PFOA (15%), while PFTeDA, PFPeS, PFHpS, PFDS, PFUnDS, PFDoDS, PFTrDS, Minor F53B and HFPO-DA were not detected. The concentrations of the different PFAS in commercial food varied from <LOQ to 2.85 μg/kg, with only one crab sample exceeding the maximum level for PFOA set by the Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915.

Evaluation of Dietary Exposure to Certain Preservative Food Additives: A Pilot Study

Aim: This study aims to evaluate dietary exposure to some preservative food additives (benzoate, sorbate, nitrite, nitrate) in young adults and compare exposure levels with acceptable daily intake. &#x0D; Material and Method: A total of 48 individuals were included in this study. To determine the intake levels of preservative food additives, a semi-quantitative processed food frequency questionnaire was used. Daily additive intakes were compared with the acceptable daily intake (ADI) set by the European Food Safety Authority to evaluate whether there was a risk of exceeding the ADI. &#x0D; Results: Average daily intakes of benzoate, sorbate, nitrite, and nitrate were calculated as 0.13 ± 0.25 mg/kg, 0.86 ± 1.00 mg/kg, 0.02 ± 0.0.3 mg/kg and 0.007 ± 0.01 mg/kg, respectively. Increased energy intake from processed foods correlates with higher sorbate intake (r=0.538 p≤0.000). Sorbate intake exceeds ADI in 4.1% of individuals and nitrite intake in 8.3%. Dietary benzoate and nitrate intake were below the ADI in all participants.&#x0D; Conclusion: In this study, although the frequency of individuals exceeding the preservative additives intake was low, increasing the frequency and amount of consumption of ultra-processed foods increase the risk of exposure. To determine risks, each country needs more dietary additive exposure estimations.

Comprehensive and cumulative risk evaluation of dietary exposure to aflatoxins and ochratoxin A on fermented teas worldwide by a new assessment model

Recently, mycotoxin risks in fermented tea have received high attention, but mycotoxin transfer rates from tealeaf to infusion during brewing were rarely considered. In addition, the assessment data (i.e., mycotoxin occurrences and tea consumption) in previous assessments were usually limited. Here, a comprehensive and cumulative risk assessment of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A was performed using a tea assessment model, by which mycotoxin transfer rates were included and the assessment data were collected worldwide. By 10 times of brewing, the aflatoxin transfer rate was only 2.94% and OTA was 63.65%. Besides the extreme case, hazard quotients (HQs) from all consumers were lower than the threshold of 1.0, indicating no noncarcinogenic risk; the P95 cumulative margin of exposure (1/MoET) values were 2.52E-04 (30–39 years of age) and 2.42E-04 (≥50 years of age) for two high exposure groups under the upper bound scenario, which a little higher than the carcinogenic risk threshold of 1.00E-04. Notably, the P95 cumulative 1/MoET values (3.24E-03 -7.95E-03) by food assessment model were ten times higher than those of by tea assessment model. The comparative results showed that mycotoxin dietary risks on tea consumption by food assessment model were much overestimated. The result of this study indicated that the contaminants transfer rates should be considered for risk assessment on tea consumption in future work.

Quantitative analysis of lycorine dietary exposure in commercial foods and the Amaryllidaceae family

Lycorine, a prominent alkaloid found in the Amaryllidaceae plant family, is known for its therapeutic properties and potential applications. However, excessive lycorine consumption can cause food poisoning and other detrimental health effects. This study focuses on the quantitative measurement of lycorine levels in commercially available foods and an evaluation of dietary exposure. With regard to this, considerable research has not been conducted to date. For the analysis of lycorine, a Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, Safe (QuEChERS) technique, and a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method were developed, validated, and applied to 56 commercial food samples and 5 Amaryllidaceae plants. The calculated dietary exposure ranged from 0.0 to 3.77 × 10−4 and 0.39–4.72 µg/kg bw/day in lycorine detected foods and Amaryllidaceae plants, respectively (Allium cepa, Allium hookeri, Allium monanthum, Perilla leaves, and Amaryllidaceae plants). Foods in the Amaryllidaceae family were more likely to contain lycorine, with onion identified as a primary food source contributing to lycorine exposure. These findings help to accurately determine the lycorine content in foods, identify potential benefits and risks associated with the consumption of lycorine-containing foods, and may support the need for further research to establish appropriate guidelines for the consumption of these foods.

Dietary Exposure and Health Risk of the Emerging Contaminant Fluorinated Liquid-Crystal Monomers.

Fluorinated liquid-crystal monomers (FLCMs) widely used in liquid crystal displays are considered to be a new generation of persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic contaminants. They have been widely detected in the environment. However, little is known about their occurrence in food and human dietary exposure until now. Herein, we provided an evaluation of dietary exposure and health risks of FLCMs in the Chinese adult population based on the fifth and sixth total diet studies (TDSs). The detection frequencies of FLCMs in the two surveys were 90.5 and 99.5%, with concentrations ranging from not detected ∼72.6 μg/kg wet weight (ww) and ND ∼74.7 μg/kg ww, respectively. All TDS samples contained the multiresidue of FLCMs. The mean estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of FLCMs were 172.86 and 163.10 ng/kg bw/day in the fifth and sixth TDS, respectively. Meats, vegetables, and cereals contributed the most to the EDI of FLCMs. According to the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) method, the EDIs of 1-fluoro-4-[2-(4-propylphenyl)ethynyl]benzene (4.56 and 3.26 ng/kg bw/day) and 2-fluoro-4-[4'-propyl-1,1'-bi(cyclohexyl)-4-yl]phenyl trifluoromethyl ether (3.12 and 3.28 ng/kg bw/day) were above their TTC value (2.5 ng/kg bw/day), suggesting their potential health risk. This is the first comprehensive national dietary exposure assessment of FLCMs.

Migration analysis and health impact assessment of phthalates in takeaway food packaging materials

AbstractPlasticizers are commonly utilized as packaging additives in the food service industry. The takeaway food sector provides convenience to consumers, but also raises the risk of human exposure to plasticizers. The goal of this study is to determine the amount of phthalates in takeaway food packaging and compare the migration amounts under various situations. A comprehensive health impact assessment of phthalates was conducted to provide the evaluation of human's daily exposure to phthalates. The results revealed that five phthalates (di (2‐ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dimethyl phthalate (DMP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP)) could be detected in n‐hexane extract of plastic food packaging materials at room temperature. High amount of phthalates was correlated with high temperature or in an oily food simulant solvent. Phthalate contents in dietary exposure did not surpass the concentration that could represent a risk to human health, based on the dietary exposure evaluation.

Evaluation of dietary exposure to fluoride from fruit juices and nectars in children and adolescents

Fluoride is present in a multitude of foods, mainly in water, but fruit juices and nectars are also relevant dietary sources, not only because of their high water content but also because of the high consumption figures, especially in children and adolescents. Fluoride is a beneficial hormetin to prevent the appearance of cavities but in high exposures it can pose a health risk. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has established a maximum Tolerable Intake Level (UL) between 0.1 and 0.12 mg/kg weight/day depending on age. The objectives of this study were to determine the fluoride content in 90 samples of fruit juices and nectars representative of the Spanish market and to estimate and evaluate the dietary exposure to fluoride from this dietary source in order to characterize the risk in different consumption scenarios. Variables such as the production area, the flavor and the type of production (ecological vs. conventional) have been considered in the analysis. Determination by potentiometry using a selective ion electrode has shown that soft drinks from fruit juices are the ones that contain less fluoride (0.19 mg/L) compared to juices from concentrate (0.43 mg/L) and nectars (0.36 mg/L). Organic juices and nectars are richer in fluoride. For each of the three consumption scenarios (200, 400 and 600 ml/day) the Estimated Daily Intakes (EDI) of fluoride are higher for juices from concentrate followed by nectars and juices. The consumption of 200 ml/day supposes 0.086 mg/L (5.73% of the UL); 0.038 mg/L (2.53% of the UL) and 0.072 mg/L (4.8% of the UL) of fluoride in the case of juices from concentrates, nectars and juices, respectively. It is recommended to moderate the consumption of these drinks, especially in children, and to choose refreshing fruit juice drinks due to their lower levels of fluoride, and to promote an improvement in the labeling of these products, incorporating the content of this anion in order to improve consumer information.

Comprehensive Evaluation of Dietary Exposure and Health Risk of Polychlorinated Naphthalenes.

Intake from food is considered an important route of human exposure to polychlorinated naphthalenes. To our knowledge, several studies have quantified dietary exposure but only in European countries and measuring only a few of the 75 congeners. In addition, the influence of source diversity on human exposure has seldom been assessed. We analyzed 192 composite food samples composed of 17,280 subsamples from 24 provinces in China to measure the concentrations of polychlorinated naphthalenes and estimate their daily intake and potential health risks on a national scale. The estimated cancer risk was in the range of 6.8 × 10-8 to 4.6 × 10-7. We compared our findings for 75 congeners with reports in the literature that quantified only 12 congeners. We estimate that these 12 congeners contribute only approximately 4% to the total mass daily intake of polychlorinated naphthalenes and 70% to the total toxic equivalent quantity, indicating underestimation of dietary exposure. The contributions of combustion-associated congeners to the total concentrations of polychlorinated naphthalenes were in the range of 31-52%, suggesting that the ongoing unintentional release of these compounds from industrial thermal processes is an important factor in polychlorinated naphthalene contamination and human exposure in China.

Contamination status and the health risk evaluation of dietary exposure of quinolone and tetracycline antibiotics in animal derived foods in Ningbo City from 2018 to 2020

To investigate the dietary exposure of Ningbo residents to quinolones and tetracyclines antibiotics in animal derived foods, so as to estimate the health risk caused by the exposure. Animal derived foods in Ningbo markets from 2018 to 2020 were collected and analyzed by ultra-fast liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Based on the result of the measurements, median(M), P97.5, average and the maximum values of the data were obtained. Coupling the food intake data of residents in Zhejiang Province, an international point estimate model was applied to evaluate the health risk caused by the dietary exposure. Enrofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, doxycycline, oxytetracycline were detected in freshwater fishes, cultured pseudosciaena crocea, freshwater shrimps, chicken, eggs and pork. The detection rates of enrofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, doxycycline, oxytetracycline were 21.2%(77/363), 11.6%(42/363), 2.8%(10/363), 1.4%(5/363), 0.6%(2/363), respectively. The dietary exposure of adults and children from animal derived foods were in the range of 0.8-909.0 and 0.6-518.9 ng/(kg·d), respectively. The hazard quotient(HQ) values were in the range of 0.000030-0.17. Quinolone and tetracycline antibiotics such as enrofloxacin and oxytetracycline have no dietary health risk to the population.

A comparative evaluation of dietary exposure to glyphosate resulting from recommended U.S. diets

Since its commercial introduction in 1974, national and international regulatory agencies have consistently reported no human health concerns associated with the herbicide glyphosate when used according to label directions. However, in 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified glyphosate as a probable human carcinogen. Despite IARC being the sole outlier in its conclusion, dietary exposure to glyphosate remains a health concern to some members of the public. While glyphosate residues have been detected in foods, it is unclear whether a specific eating pattern substantially contributes to glyphosate exposure. Therefore, dietary glyphosate intake was determined for three eating patterns recommended in the U.S. The 95th percentile of glyphosate ingestion at 2,000 calories/day for adults for the U.S.-Style, Mediterranean-Style, and Vegetarian eating patterns ranged from 38 to 960, 39 to 1100, and 39 to 880 μg/day, respectively. No significant differences were observed in glyphosate intake between the dietary styles, and the 95th percentile glyphosate intakes were well below the current U.S. EPA chronic oral reference dose (RfD) of 0.1 mg/kg/day. Our data demonstrate that ingestion of certain high residue foods, particularly grains and legumes, is a driver of total dietary glyphosate body burden regardless of dietary style.

Bioaccessibility dependence of dietary exposure to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites and hexachlorocyclohexane isomers and their induced health risk: A case study in Beijing City, China

Bioaccessibility is essential for evaluating dietary intake of contaminants. However, there is insufficient information on the dependence of dietary intake and risk assessment of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDXs) and hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs) on bioaccessibility. Here, we investigated the bioaccessibilities of DDXs and HCHs in various foods and their influences on assessing exposure in the residents of Beijing City, China. Forty-three major foods in five types (fruit, vegetables, cereals, aquatic food, and meat) were sampled, and the bioaccessibility of DDXs and HCHs was evaluated using a static in vitro gastrointestinal digestion model. The bioaccessibility of DDXs in different food types ranked in the order of meat > vegetables > fruit > cereals > aquatic food, with mean ± standard deviation values of 62.2 ± 22.1%, 20.5 ± 10.6%, 12.4 ± 3.66%, 11.2 ± 9.69%, and 10.7 ± 4.97%, respectively. The highest average bioaccessibility of HCHs was found in meat (83.4 ± 14.2%), followed by fruit (41.0 ± 12.5%), vegetables (37.6 ± 18.1%), aquatic foods (24.2 ± 9.22%), and cereals (8.73 ± 4.07%). The estimated daily intakes (EDI) of the sum of DDXs and the sum of HCHs based on the bioaccessible concentration were only about 17% and 55% of the total EDI based on the residual concentration, respectively. Meat was found to play a more important role in EDI after bioaccessibility correction. The proportion of the population with potential non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks markedly decreased when considering bioaccessibility. It was concluded that bioaccessibility should be integrated into dietary exposure evaluation.

Contamination status and the evaluation of dietary exposure of marine biotoxins in seafood in Ningbo City in 2017-2019

Ultra-fast liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was developed for the analysis of contamination degree of biotoxins in seafood in Ningbo City from 2017 to 2019 and the assessment of dietary exposure was conducted. Samples were extracted and purified with optimized pretreatment process and then injected for analysis. According to the result of the measurements, an international point estimate model was used to evaluate the dietary exposure of the population. For tetrodotoxin and 16 shellfish toxins monitored routinely, gonyautoxin5(GTX5), tetrodotoxin and homo-yessotoxin(hYTX) had higher detection rate, other toxins including okadaic acid(OA), dinophysistoxin1(DTX1), decarbamoyl gonyautoxin2(dcGTX2) and decarbamoyl gonyautoxin3(dcGTX3) were detected sporadically. The detection rates of TTX、GTX and hYTX were 27%, 52% and 12%, respectively. The concentration ranges of TTX, GTX and hYTX in polluted samples were 0. 003-0. 535, 0. 008-0. 189 and 0. 032-0. 110 mg/kg. The exposure risk indices(ERI) of TTX, GTX5, hYTX, dcGTX2 and dcGTX3 were 2. 5, 0. 026, 0. 0080, 0. 79 and 0. 32, respectively. Marine biotoxins have a lower dietary health risk to the population. It is must be given great attention that in the season of toxic red tide, the detection rates of higher toxic toxins, dcGTX2 and dcGTX3 increased significantly with high risks to human. Moreover, the dietary health risk of tetrodotoxin in routine surveillance in 2019 was higher.

Clothianidin residues in green bean, pepper and watermelon crops and dietary exposure evaluation based on dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction and LC–MS/MS

We developed an analytical method for quantifying clothianidin residues in green bean, pepper and watermelon crops using dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry; this method was more rapid, sensitive and simple than QuEChERS sample preparation. Method validation indicated that the recovery for clothianidin was 80.8–93.1%, intra-day and inter-day repeatability ranged from 3.32 to 6.11% and 7.77 to 14.74%, respectively, limits of detection ranged from 0.64 to 0.74 µg/kg, and limits of quantification were 2.13–2.47 µg/kg. Matrix-matched calibration was used to compensate for matrix effects. Following application of the recommended dose in field trials, clothianidin dissipation followed first-order kinetics with half-lives of 1.9, 2.07, and 1.87 days in green bean, pepper, and watermelon crops; respective waiting periods of 5.76, 6.18, and 7.87 days after application are suggested for safe consumption. This study indicates the application of clothianidin presents no significant health risk to Egyptian consumers.

Safety of Corn and Corn-Based Products Intended for Human Consumption Concerning Fumonisins from a Brazilian Processing Plant.

Brazil is one of the world’s largest corn producers and is a leader in exportation. Due to intense globalization, corn may be commercialized worldwide and the issue concerning the safety of corn-based products has become a topic of widespread international interest. Dietary exposure evaluation is a relevant criterion for mycotoxin risk assessment. Thus, human exposure to fumonisins were assessed for corn grain and its derivatives (endosperm, cornmeal, and grits; n = 320) sampled from one of the large-scale corn processing plants in Brazil. The total probable daily intake (PDI) for fumonisins in Brazil was 96.9 ng kg−1 body weight day−1, which corresponds to 5% of the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 2000 ng kg−1 b.w. day−1 for fumonisins. In countries that import Brazilian corn, the total PDI is lower in European countries (from 35.7 to 177 ng kg−1 b.w. day−1) and higher in Angola (1553 ng kg−1 b.w. day−1). Taking into account that dietary exposure in populations in Brazil and importing countries was low, the corn-based products were safe for human consumption regarding fumonisins, even for regions with high corn consumption.

Evaluation of dietary exposure to deoxynivalenol (DON) and its derivatives from cereals in China

Probabilistic estimation of dietary exposure to DON, including its acetylated derivatives, and type B trichothecenes from cereals and cereal-based products in Chinese populations was investigated in the current work. Different cut-offs as proposed Maximum levels (MLs) for DON in various raw cereals and/or cereal-based foods were assessed based on the risk assessment results. Occurrence data was documented from 31 provinces of China over the year 2010–2013. Food consumption data was obtained from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey conducted in 2002. Dietary exposure was implemented by Monte Carlo (MC) simulations and Bootstrap resampling. The exposure distributions were specified as percentiles with confidence intervals (95% CIs) and compared with the group provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 1 μg/kg bw/day and the group acute reference dose (ARfD) of 8 μg/kg bw/day for DON and its acetylated derivatives. Results indicate that 75% of children and 90% of the general population and the adults are under the group PMTDI value, while 99% of the three populations are under ARfD value. However, under the assumptions of the proposed cut-offs, the P99.9 percentiles would decrease significantly. The probabilistic assessment in this study indicated that high-end exposure to DON and its derivatives should be concerned, especially for children. Rigorous formulation of maximum limits for DON and its derivatives in the relevant foodstuffs combined with increased monitoring should be considered as an effective way to reduce risk.

Construction of a risk assessment system for chemical residues in agricultural products.

ObjectivesContinuous monitoring of chemical residues in agricultural and food products has been performed by various government bodies in South Korea. These bodies have made attempts to systematically manage this information by creating a monitoring database system as well as a system based on these data with which to assess the health risk of chemical residues in agricultural products.MethodsMeanwhile, a database system is being constructed consisting of information about monitoring and, following this, a demand for convenience has led to the need for an evaluation tool to be constructed with the data processing system.ResultsAlso, in order to create a systematic and effective tool for the risk assessment of chemical residues in foods and agricultural products, various evaluation models are being developed, both domestically and abroad. Overseas, systems such as Dietary Exposure Evaluation Model: Food Commodity Intake Database and Cumulative and Aggregate Risk Evaluation System are being used; these use the US Environmental Protection Agency as a focus, while the EU has developed Pesticide Residue Intake Model for assessments of pesticide exposure through food intake. Following this, the National Academy of Agricultural Science (NAAS) created the Agricultural Products Risk Assessment System (APRAS) which supports the use and storage of monitoring information and risk assessments. APRAS efficiently manages the monitoring data produced by NAAS and creates an extraction feature included in the database system. Also, the database system in APRAS consists of a monitoring database system held by the NAAS and food consumption database system. Food consumption data is based on Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. ConclusionsThis system is aimed at exposure and risk assessments for chemical residues in agricultural products with regards to different exposure scenarios.

Evaluation of dietary exposure of crabs to inorganic mercury or methylmercury, with or without co-exposure to selenium

Dietary exposure of crabs to mercury species, w/o selenium co-exposure, showed the antagonistic role that selenium may play against mercury.

As, Cd, Cr, Pb and Hg in seafood species used for sashimi and evaluation of dietary exposure

The presence of inorganic contaminants As, Cd, Cr, Hg and Pb was evaluated in 116 samples of muscles of seafood used for sashimi from Japanese restaurants in Campinas, SP, Brazil. Tuna (Thunnus thynnus), salmon (Salmo salar), mullet (Mugil platanus) and octopus (Octopus vulgaris) were the most common seafood species in these restaurants. Samples were digested in a microwave assisted system and the contaminants were determined by inductively coupled plasma (ICP OES). The percentage of samples above the maximum limit permitted by MERCOSUL and European regulations were: As (90% tuna, 48% salmon, 31% mullet and 100% octopus); Cd (61% octopus); Hg (7% tuna); Pb (6% mullet). Octopus and tuna were the sashimi that most contributed to arsenic and mercury intake, respectively.

Evaluation of dietary exposure to minerals, trace elements and heavy metals from the muscle tissue of the lionfish Pterois volitans (Linnaeus 1758)

Twenty-five samples of Pterois volitans caught in Jamaican waters were analyzed for 25 essential, non-essential and toxic elements using Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (GF-AAS), Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES) and Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA). The mean values for calcium (355 mg/kg), copper (107 μg/kg), iron (0.81 mg/kg), potassium (3481 mg/kg), magnesium (322 mg/kg), manganese (0.04 mg/kg), selenium (0.47 mg/kg), sodium (700 mg/kg) and zinc (4.46 mg/kg) were used to estimate dietary intake. The percentage contribution to provisional tolerable weekly intake for a 70 kg male and a 65 kg female were also estimated for the toxic elements arsenic (1.28% M, 1.38% F), cadmium (0.26% M. 0.28% F), mercury (3.85% M, 4.15% F) and lead (0.17% M, 0.18% F). To further assess the risk of mercury toxicity and the role of mitigation provided by selenium, selenium-mercury molar ratios were calculated for all samples. All samples were shown to have a molar excess of selenium. In addition the suggested selenium health benefit value was calculated, and was positive for all samples. It was concluded that P. volitans appears to contribute modestly to mineral and trace element nutrition, while not being a significant contributor to dietary exposure of toxic elements.

Probabilistic Evaluation of Dietary Exposure to Lead in Jiangsu Province, China

Probabilistic Evaluation of Dietary Exposure to Lead in Jiangsu Province, China