EU Waste Framework Research Articles

Strength- and Moisture-Related Studies of Historical Building Materials: A Case Study from Southern Estonia

Demolition of existing buildings turns building products into waste. The amount of demolition waste is increasing globally. The current case study is an example of fulfilling the EU Waste Framework Directive of reducing demolition waste by reuse of historical materials in their original structures. The aim of this paper is to investigate construction materials from 19th and 20th centuries and their mechanical and physical properties in a case study building from the conservation area of Võru city, South Estonia. Timber structures of the case study building were non-destructively tested on-site using a resistive method. Ceramic brick plinth and basement walls, as well as concrete and granite ceiling, were tested in situ non-destructively (rebound hammer test) for compressive strength estimation. Previously dismantled timber logs, slats and ceramic bricks were tested in the laboratory for compression and bending, respectively. The logs and slats matched the European timber bending strength classes C22 and C40, respectively. The compressive strength of the studied ceramic bricks was comparable to that of newly produced bricks. The non-destructive moisture content of timber structures varied in spring (5–20%) but was steady in the autumn (5–7%) tests. The rebound hammer test overestimated by 1.5…2 times the compressive strength of the studied materials compared to laboratory tests.

Can't see the carbon for the CO2? Regulating CCU value chains under and beyond climate law

AbstractTo realise the objectives of the European Green Deal (EGD), fossil carbon will have to be not only reduced but also replaced with recycled carbon. The European Commission considers industrial carbon management and carbon capture and utilisation (CCU) technologies to be part of the solution. A value chain ensues when carbon dioxide (CO2) is captured and utilised as raw material. Examination of the climate, energy and environmental legal landscape of one specific CCU value chain—comprising of waste, waste incineration and plastic raw material—reveals the varied approaches regulation has towards CO2 and carbon. In this article, both carbon cycle legislation and legislation on the carbon source and the material storing carbon are analysed. The legislation being developed directly for CCU for products (other than synthetic fuels) focusses on the carbon cycle and CO2 under the EU emissions trading system (ETS) and a proposed Carbon Removal Certification Framework. Regulatory uncertainty remains for the studied CCU value chain as the capture of CO2 from waste incineration has yet to be incentivised under the EU ETS. Further, the criteria for the permanence of carbon storage in products to qualify under the EU ETS and of the long‐term storage under the Carbon Removal Certification Framework (CRCF) have yet to be developed. For a more complete understanding, we have also analysed waste and product regulations. The conceptual structure of the EU Waste Framework Directive does not seem to support circulating carbon. This context also raises the fundamental question of whether the purpose of waste incineration could be carbon recycling instead of mere energy production. Regarding material storing carbon, plastics, the regulator has been silent as CCU‐originated plastic raw material is not recognised in EU plastics law. These issues must be identified and resolved one by one before the EGD can be secured; revisiting only climate law instruments does not suffice.

The Compliance Risk Assessment of EU REACH SVHC in Articles of IC Package by Studies of Analysis Methodology

Companies may have legal obligations resulting from the inclusion of the Candidate List of substances of very high concern (SVHC) in a concentration above 0.1% w/w in an Article, as defined under EU REACH Regulation and Waste Framework Directive (SCIP Database) if they place articles on the EU market. Only a few studies have so far been made on how to determine the contents of the Chemical in Product (CiP). The approach to identifying the risk associated with the SVHC in the IC package is mainly to collect and review large information from the supplier chain or by chemical analysis. This article tries to discuss the current challenges for data collection and identifying risks with chemical substances in the IC package. Based on the chemical test results of 2-benzyl-2-dimethylamino-4’-morpholinobutyrophenone and bisphenol A, it was found that the test results of SVHC could be affected by numerous factors such as tested sample form (e.g., powder or flaky shaped), tested sample curing conditions, and chemical analytical methods. Although chemical analysis provides more accurate information for SVHC, when utilizing chemical analysis for checking legal compliance, we still need to compare and analyze the result of chemical substances analysis with the materials self-declaration provided by suppliers to judge whether the data are reasonable.

Aspects of improving waste management in the European Union

A number of measures are implemented in Georgia from the perspective of waste management. Laws have been developed, including within the framework of harmonization with the European Union. Some practical steps have also taken but challenges still remain. Becoming familiar with EU practices will play a valuable role in overcoming these challenges. In this paper, some of the measures implemented and planned to improve waste management in EU are studied and analyzed. The 8th Environmental Action Program of the European Union has prioritized that by 2050 at the latest, people will live well, taking into account planetary boundaries in a welfare economy. In this kind of world, where nothing is lost, growth is regenerative, achieving climate neutrality across the Union and with significantly reduced inequality. The European experience of waste management shows that it should be developed in coordination with environmental action plans. In addition, activating the involvement of all stakeholders is a daily task to achieve the set goals of waste management. The final part of the paper presents the important aspects of the measures to be taken to increase the efficiency of waste management in the European Union, which will also be useful for overcoming the relevant challenges in Georgia. Keywords: Waste Management; EU Waste Framework Directive

Approaches of European to the regulation of waste management (review)

Introduction. Waste management, including hazardous waste, is one of the issues that are regulated at the level of the European Union with the help of Directives that are binding on all EU member states. Various EU Waste Directives have been approved since 1975, and in 2008 the fundamental EU Waste Framework Directive (Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste and repealing certain Directives) was adopted, which describes the waste management policy, defines the classification of waste and methods for their processing and disposal. Material and methods. When preparing the review, legal documents (in particular, Directives, EU Regulations in the field of waste management) and guidelines for practical waste management in the EU were used. Results and discussions. The review presents a methodology for classifying waste, dividing it into non-hazardous and hazardous. Hazard codes and classes, threshold values, i.e. criteria for classifying waste as hazardous. Conclusion. At the stage of analysis of European legislation concerning waste management, the EU pays special attention to the classification of waste as an important tool for differentiating their flow and planning the management of their individual types. The main principle of classification is the differentiation of waste according to the degree of danger to the environment and humans, which allows minimizing their negative impact.

Forecasting Landfilling Indicators Of Municipal Waste In Greece Using Univariate Time-series Model

Implementation of environmental policies, is one of the European Commission's key priorities, as confirmed by its proposal for the 7th Environment Action Programme and the Roadmap to a resource-efficient Europe. Subsequently, the European Union revised its waste legislation to address these challenges more adequately. As a result, the EU's Waste Framework Directive and Landfill Directive set binding targets for recycling municipal waste and diverting biodegradable municipal waste from landfills. This paper deals with the monitoring of municipal waste management operations in Greece, in terms of technical content and ability to reach the targets of the initiatives. In addition, a more detailed report on waste indicators published by Eurostat will be based on an Exploratory Data Analysis and on a Univariate time-series prediction model. Finally, the overall aim of this study is to gain maximum insight into the data and understand its underlying structure through graphical representation, to achieve the most accurate forecast for the landfilling operation.

State of the acquis communautaire in environmental matters in Ukraine: waste management

The article looks at the legislative efforts that have been taken to adapt waste legislation in Ukraine to European requirements. Despite the difficult situation due to the military aggression Ukraine Parliament has on June 20, 2022 adopted in second reading a new waste law. The law complies with both the Association Agreement and the EU Waste Framework Directive (WFD). Certain points go beyond what is required by the WFD. The law provides for strict liability for the owner of the land on which abandoned waste has been identified. The Law also defines technical requirements for incineration and co-incineration. In this respect, the draft already complies with the provisions of the EU Industrial Emissions Directive. The law also addresses the problem of transboundary movement of waste, although this issue is not a part of the Association Agreement or the WFD. The import of waste for disposal is prohibited. Also basic requirements of the EU Landfill Directive are covered. The evaluation of the Waste Management Law shows that Ukraine is on a good path to fulfil EU requirements.

The new European database for chemicals of concern: How useful is SCIP for waste management?

The interface between chemicals and waste legislation is a major problem for the envisaged circular economy. To re-use or recycle more waste, information on its composition is needed. The EU Waste Framework Directive obliges producers to document the presence of substances of very high concern in a new database (SCIP), which went online in January 2021. We studied some products of varying complexity and with different pollutant problems from a number of industries. Our investigation indicates that the new database is of limited use for recycling companies. Further requirements focusing on the intended recycling of used products are discussed.

Political Cycles and Yardstick Competition in the Recycling of Waste. Evidence From Italian Provinces

Recycling and the recovery of waste are crucial waste management strategies. In light of the new EU circular economy approach, these strategies remain core pillars of a competitive and sustainable waste value chain. Local governments have an important role in controlling and checking the implementation of waste management policies. We study the spatial determinants of waste recovery by using a dataset of 102 Italian provinces from the years 2001-2014. We exploit the political cycle of the provinces to isolate the effects of waste recovery in one province on neighboring provinces. We find that provinces mimic their own neighbors’ in the separate collection of waste aimed at recycling and recovery, with this effect being fully guided by provinces where the president can run for re-election (consistent with the yardstick competition hypothesis) but only when waste management policies become politically salient, that is, after the transposition of the 2008 EU Waste Framework Directive.

Re-thinking producer responsibility for a sustainable circular economy from extended producer responsibility to pre-market producer responsibility

The transition to a sustainable Circular Economy (CE) requires moving away from linear production processes and the throwaway mentality. Waste needs to be prevented and the consumption of new products must decline. In particular, this involves extending product lifetime (through maintenance and repair) and supporting second-hand trading (reuse). Such a transformation of consumption patterns requires a fundamental change notably in business models. The role of the law is to enable the change. For a long time, the objective of retaining the primary value of products has been linked to waste prevention, which is the main priority of the waste hierarchy as laid out in the EU Waste Framework Directive, 2008/98/EC. However, waste law appears somewhat ill-suited to address these issues. The incentives provided by the extended producer responsibility (EPR) scheme are limited when it comes to promoting upstream design changes. In line with what Lindhqvist, the father of EPR in Europe, originally had in mind, the responsibility of producers should cover products’ entire life cycle, not just their end-of-life. This article explores the current tensions between EU waste law and the objectives of the CE, and calls for incorporating a pre-market producer responsibility (PPR) within a legal framework for products in order to limit market access to durable, reparable and reusable products.

Novel construction and demolition waste (CDW) treatment and uses to maximize reuse and recycling

ABSTRACT The EU Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC states that all member states should take all necessary measures in order to achieve at least 70% re-use, recycling or other recovery of non-hazardous Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW) by 2020. In response, the Horizon 2020 RE4 project consortium (REuse and REcycling of CDW materials and structures in energy efficient pREfabricated elements for building REfurbishment and construction) consisting of 12 research and industrial partners across Europe, plus a research partner from Taiwan, was set up. For its success, the approach of the Project was manifold, developing sorting technologies to first improve the quality of CDW-derived aggregate. Simultaneously, CDW streams were assessed for quality and novel applications developed for aggregate, timber and plastic waste in a variety of products including structural and non-structural elements. With all products considered, innovative building concepts have been designed in a bid to improve future reuse and recycling of the products by promoting prefabricated construction methods and modular design to ease future recycling and increase value of the construction industry. The developed technologies and products have been put to the test in different test sites in building a two-storey house containing at least 65% of CDW.

Mind the gap: A model for the EU recycling target applied to the Spanish regions

The recycling targets for municipal solid waste included in the EU Waste Framework Directive (WFD) are a relevant driver for sustainable waste management in the EU. According to the WFD, Member States should reach 50% recycling rate by 2020 while 65% has been recently approved for 2035. The aims of this paper are (1) to formalise the WFD definition of recycling rate, by converting it into a model that permits a systematic comparison across systems; and (2) to test the model by using a case study, in order to explore the analytical insights derived from the results, focused on the gap between the current management situation and the EU targets. To this end, a model is presented for the case of Spain at regional level (in Spain, the regional scale is relevant because the Autonomous Communities have to comply with the EU recycling targets according to the Spanish National Waste Management Plan). Results show that most Spanish regions will have to undertake profound changes regarding waste management in order to comply with the WFD. These changes are related to increasing separate collection (of food and garden waste, particularly), improving waste treatment efficiency and limiting the disposal of unsorted waste. The model informs policy-makers about the gap between the current performance of a given system (country, region, municipality) and the WFD target and identifies trade-offs between management strategies. It also contributes to the debate on the on-going revision of the WFD, particularly on the relevance of having a consistent definition of “municipal solid waste” accompanied by waste-stream specific definitions of “recycling”.

Waste Prevention and Technologies in the Context of the EU Waste Framework Directive: Lost in Translation?

The EU is set to transit from linear to circular economy: turning waste into a resource in order to increase resource efficiency and close the loop in a circular economy. This article centres on the Waste Framework Directive and most importantly its newest proposal, the main EU legislation to regulate waste. It argues that there is not sufficient guidance given to the regulatory limits of the definition of waste, especially in the context of the so-called subcategory of ``waste v. non-waste'' where ``waste'' was utilised as a fuel. While prevention is a breaking point in the waste hierarchy (as reuse, recycle, recovery and finally disposal are assumed to be waste unless cease to be waste), it seems unfortunate that it is not translated into a well-defined classification of waste and non-waste (i.e. product). It is not clear how prevention operates in the context of the WFD, as before a substance or object becomes waste, it was a product. Therefore, the paper calls to the rethink of categorisation of waste and product in the context of prevention placing further emphasis on the environment and human health as its main condition simultaneously embracing circular economy thinking. The European Commission should provide a European standard for waste derived fuels, which is essential for a proper functioning of European market. Furthermore, the paper also discusses that the WFD (and its newest proposal) fails to properly address technological advancements designed to transfer ``waste'' to a valued resource without posing any threat to the environment, which could be upgraded to the prevention systems. Against this background, the patented micro-scale Home Energy Recovery Unit, designed to process all unwanted domestic materials to generate energy for the household is used as a case study in this article.

THE INTERNATIONAL LAW REGARDING SHIP-SOURCE POLLUTION LIABILITY AND COMPENSATION: EVOLUTION AND CURRENT CHALLENGES

THE INTERNATIONAL LAW REGARDING SHIP-SOURCE POLLUTION LIABILITY AND COMPENSATION: EVOLUTION AND CURRENT CHALLENGES

How Does the European Recovery Target for Construction & Demolition Waste Affect Resource Management?

The revised EU Waste Framework Directive (WFD) includes a 70 % target for recovery of construction and demolition (C&D) waste. In order to study the potential change in the resource management of the main C&D waste fractions, as a consequence of fulfilling the WFD target, a Nordic project (ENCORT-CDW) has been performed. Waste fractions studied included asphalt, concrete, bricks, track ballast, gypsum-based construction materials and wood. Recovery scenarios were identified and estimations were made regarding expected savings of primary materials, impact on transport, and pollution and emissions. For wood waste, the main differences between re-use, material recycling and energy recovery were evaluated in a carbon footprint screening based on life cycle assessment methodology. The study concluded that the EU recovery target does not ensure a resource efficient and environmentally sustainable waste recovery in its present form since: It is very sensitive to how the legal definitions of waste and recovery are interpreted in the Member States. This means that certain construction material cycles might not count in the implementation reports while other, less efficient and environmentally safe, recovery processes of the same material will count.It is weight-based and consequently favours large and heavy waste streams. The result is that smaller flows with equal or larger resource efficiency and environmental benefit will be insignificant for reaching the target.It does not distinguish between the various recovery processes, meaning that resource efficient and environmentally safe recovery cannot be given priority.Improved knowledge on C&D waste generation and handling, as well as on content and emissions of dangerous substances, is required to achieve a sustainable recovery.

Life cycle assessment of conventional and two-stage advanced energy-from-waste technologies for municipal solid waste treatment

The EU landfill and Waste Framework directives are driving new approaches to waste management in the UK, away from landfilling and mass-burn incineration, which has been regarded as the main alternative to landfilling. The objective of this study is to compare the environmental impacts of three dual-stage advanced energy-from-waste technologies, i.e. gasification and plasma gas cleaning, fast pyrolysis and combustion and gasification with syngas combustion, with those associated with conventional treatments for municipal solid waste, i.e. landfill with electricity production and incineration with electricity production. Results show that the two-stage gasification and plasma process has a significantly better overall environmental performance than the conventional waste treatment technologies and somewhat better than a more modern incineration plant, exemplified by a plant under commissioning in Lincolnshire in the UK. The benefits of the gasification and plasma process arise primarily from its higher net electrical efficiency.

Construction and demolition waste management – a holistic evaluation of environmental performance

A growing amount of construction and demolition waste (C&DW) is produced in Europe each year. Increased recycling of C&DW is required by the EU Waste Framework Directive, targeting at 70% recycling of non-hazardous C&DW by 2020. The aim of the study was to assess the performance of the common Finnish C&DW management system against this target, thus identifying the environmental and economic impacts of the system and the effects brought about by changes in the waste composition. In this study, a combination of different methodologies was applied to evaluate holistically the performance of the C&DW management system: material flow analysis (MFA) was employed to assess material and energy recovery rates, life cycle assessment (LCA) was utilised to evaluate climate change impacts, and environmental life cycle costing (ELCC) was used for measuring the costs. In addition, the applicability of the best available technology (BAT) approach for developing the efficiency of the waste management system was scrutinised. Thus, aligned with the empirical aim of assessing the performance of Finnish C&DW in reference to the EU Waste Framework Directive, the theoretical aim of the study was to test how the employment of different assessment methodologies affects the performance results of the C&DW management system.According to the results, the overall system produced environmental benefits and was economically profitable, but was far behind the target of recycling 70%. Based on the assessments, the EU Waste Framework Directive target will not be achieved, even with the likely changes in waste composition. Thus, major changes will be needed to source separation and recovery within the system, e.g. by finding recycling concepts for waste wood without decreasing the environmental and economic benefits of the system. The employment of different methodologies gave a diversified view of the possibilities to develop the system. The metal treatment performed well in all assessments; hence improvements to it would not benefit the system notably. For wood the results were controversial, since the energy recovery generated environmental and economic benefits, but did not increase the recycling rate. Material recovery concepts should be developed, but simultaneously the environmental and economic benefits should be retained. Miscellaneous waste had the potential for increasing recycling and avoiding costs and emissions. Mixed waste was identified as the worst fraction in relation to climate change impacts, costs and material recycling. Applying the BAT approach showed that BAT for waste management needs to be based on system-level rather than installation-level assessments.This multi-methodological assessment of C&DW management showed the need for analysing the environmental performance of a system from different perspectives before decision-making. In general, the recycling of waste generates greater environmental benefits than energy recovery, but this may not always be the case. Regional differences in operations and waste composition may support arguments for differing recycling targets in different regions.

Waste hierarchy revisited — an evaluation of waste wood recycling in the context of EU energy policy and the European market

The EU Waste Framework Directive requires a five-stage waste hierarchy for waste management in the member countries of the EU. This specification also applies to biomass so that for waste wood recycling is given priority over energy recovery. Previous lifecycle assessment studies show the environmental benefits of the waste hierarchy with regard to waste wood. However, they do not take into account the current context of energy policy which relies on an increased use of biomass as an energy carrier. If this factor and its effects on biomass availability are included in the system of lifecycle analysis, wood recycling and waste to-energy are essentially equal in terms of environmental assessment. Political intervention in the waste wood market, such as prioritising recycling, therefore deserves close examination. It is time for a discussion on whether the stated benefit of cascade use of wood (and biomass) should be fundamentally questioned.

Assessment of mobility and bioavailability of contaminants in MSW incineration ash with aquatic and terrestrial bioassays

Incineration of municipal solid waste (MSW) is a waste treatment method which can be sustainable in terms of waste volume reduction as well as a source of renewable energy. In the process fly and bottom ash is generated as a waste material. The ash residue may vary greatly in composition depending on the type of waste incinerated and it can contain elevated levels of harmful contaminants such as heavy metals. In this study, the ecotoxicity of a weathered, untreated incineration bottom ash was characterized as defined by the H14 criterion of the EU Waste Framework Directive by means of an elemental analysis, leaching tests followed by a chemical analysis and a combination of aquatic and solid-phase bioassays. The experiments were conducted to assess the mobility and bioavailability of ash contaminants. A combination of aquatic and terrestrial bioassays was used to determine potentially adverse acute effects of exposure to the solid ash and aqueous ash leachates. The results from the study showed that the bottom ash from a municipal waste incineration plant in mid-Sweden contained levels of metals such as Cu, Pb and Zn, which exceeded the Swedish EPA limit values for inert wastes. The chemical analysis of the ash leachates showed high concentrations of particularly Cr. The leachate concentration of Cr exceeded the limit value for L/S 10 leaching for inert wastes. Filtration of leachates prior to analysis may have underestimated the leachability of complex-forming metals such as Cu and Pb. The germination test of solid ash and ash leachates using T. repens showed a higher inhibition of seedling emergence of seeds exposed to the solid ash than the seeds exposed to ash leachates. This indicated a relatively low mobility of toxicants from the solid ash into the leachates, although some metals exceeded the L/S 10 leaching limit values for inert wastes. The Microtox® toxicity test showed only a very low toxic response to the ash leachate exposure, while the D. magna immobility test showed a moderately high toxic effect of the ash leachates. Overall, the results from this study showed an ecotoxic effect of the solid MSW bottom ash and the corresponding ash leachates. The material may therefore pose an environmental risk if used in construction applications. However, as the testing of the solid ash was rather limited and the ash leachate showed an unusually high leaching of Cr, further assessments are required in order to conclusively characterize the bottom ash studied herein as hazardous according to the H14 criterion.

Implementing new EU environmental law: the short life of the UK Site Waste Management Plan Regulations

Using an analytical framework based on current implementation theory, this research examines the transposition of the EU Waste Framework Directive into UK law and local government development control procedures. The study which forms the basis of this paper was commissioned by the UK Government to evaluate the effectiveness of the construction Waste Management Plans introduced as a legal requirement in 2008. It was found that its implementation had largely failed and that these new laws had been ineffective. Subsequently, in March 2012 the UK Government announced its intention to withdraw these Regulations. In the context of current deregulatory pressures, but with the continuing need to minimise construction waste, this research concludes that more attention should be paid by central government to their current ‘top-down’ implementation procedures in order to better roll-out new environmental legislation in the future.