EU Energy Research Articles

Rationalization of Energy Expenditure: Household Behavior in Poland

Background: The implementation of the EU climate and energy policy, along with changes in the legal environment, has led to a significant increase in energy prices in Poland. Consequently, energy expenditures are now a larger part of household budgets. These rising energy costs and the evolving legal landscape are compelling households to invest in energy-saving solutions and modify their energy consumption habits. This article aims to identify the activities of households in Poland regarding the rationalization of energy expenditures. It formulates the following research hypothesis: households invest in energy-saving appliances to rationalize energy expenditures and/or change their behaviors to reduce energy consumption. Methods: The paper is based on primary research conducted using an online questionnaire survey on a sample of 331 respondents in Poland in March and April 2023. Results: A classification tree algorithm was used to identify the level of investment activities and behavioral changes made by households to reduce energy expenditures. The authors found that low-income households and people who fear further energy price increases are the first of all to change their behaviors for more energy-efficient ones. Medium- and high-income households take investment measures. They replace household appliances with more energy-efficient ones and install heat pumps and photovoltaic panels. These investments are motivated by responsible consumption, environmental protection, cleanliness, and the ease of use of the appliances.

Going beyond the Council as brake of EU energy policy: Analysing the internal process of the Council in the recast of the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive

The Council is the voice of the member states' governments in the EU policymaking process and the institutional setting where member states can enforce their national interest. The literature on Council decision-making has previously mostly used expert interviews or voting patterns. Through a detailed examination of one specific legislative file in the recent ‘Fit for 55’ climate package in which subsidiarity and varying national conditions is central, this study focus on how disagreements between member states are resolved and how strategic word framing can aid in resolving political controversies in EU energy policy. This article analyses Council working group meeting notes and revisions of the recent recast of the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive, providing a unique look behind the curtains of negotiations between member states in the Council within a deliberative intergovernmental framework. A mix of quantitative and qualitative text analysis is applied to deliberations and legislative revisions. The findings show that a fragile consensus is reached despite disagreement through enabling of national flexibility in policy decisions, indicating that the Council determines the speed of European integration in the policy domain.

SOME LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE EUROPEAN GREEN DEAL IN THE CONTEXT OF THE TRANSITION TO THE USE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES IN UKRAINE

The article is devoted to the study of the legal aspects of the European Green Deal implementation in Ukraine, in particular in the context of the energy sector transformation the by increasing the share of renewable energy sources. There have been examined the key trends in the legal development of renewable energy and determines the environmental challenges caused by climate change and other negative factors affecting the environment, as well as analyzes the potential possibilities of adapting national environmental legislation to European legal standards in the field of renewable energy use. The author emphasizes the economic, social and environmental benefits of achieving the goals of the European Green Deal on the way to ensuring the sustainable development of Ukraine, calling for the creation of a clear and coherent system of legislation dedicated to the legal regulation of renewable energy in Ukraine. The results of the study points the urgency of creating an effective legal framework for the economy green transformation and the adaptation of energy and environmental policies to European requirements and standards. In the context of modern global environmental problems related to climate change, excessive pollution of atmospheric air, water and forest ecosystems, soil degradation as a result of both increasing anthropogenic load on natural resources and due to the development of objective laws of nature, one of the key priorities European environmental policy outlined the transition to the principles of sustainable development, which, in turn, generated the need to search for optimal mechanisms and concepts for ensuring such a transition. The European Green Course, adopted by the EU in 2019, is an ambitious and progressive strategy for the transformation of the European continent into a climate-neutral one by 2050. As a comprehensive conceptual package of legislative initiatives, to achieve this goal, the European Green Course includes not only the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere, but also a significant increase in the share of renewable energy sources, an increase in the energy efficiency of European countries, and the integration of the energy markets of individual countries with the EU energy market. For Ukraine, the issue of implementing a policy of sustainable development by transitioning to the use of renewable energy sources is not only part of its European integration obligations, but also a time-tested necessity, taking into account the state of the country’s energy sector both during the war period and in the context of the post-war reconstruction of our country.

Policy learning for policy change on energy efficiency in European companies

The EU energy efficiency directive (EED) includes provisions to stimulate increased energy efficiency in companies. Mandatory provisions were first introduced in 2012 and recast in 2023. Policy learning has been suggested as an important route to policy change. This paper analyses how and why policy learning helped revising EU legislation to enhance energy efficiency in companies, using provisions of mandatory energy audits as a case. Negative experience from member states’ governments with the original provisions were voiced shortly after the adoption of EED. A complex process going back and forth between member state and EU levels led by a learning agent facilitated collective learning and change of beliefs, first in member states then in the Council. Several cognitive biases among individuals in the European Commission led to non-learning at the individual level and blocked learning at the collective level. This further blocked policy learning in the EU when EED was amended in 2018. However, external crises and the entering office of a new Commission College in 2019 made the Commission to reconsider its beliefs. Political leadership opened a window for individual and collective learning in the Commission and policy learning in the EU when provisions were changed with the recast of EED in 2023. This suggests that individual and collective learning in the EC is key for policy change to happen. Without new beliefs in the EC, it is hard to get a topic onto the policy agenda. The paper proposes policy recommendations on how to facilitate policy learning and suggests areas for further research.

Agencification in the EU Energy Sector: A Case Study on Delegation and Margin of Discretion in EU Electricity Market Rule-making

The number and role of agencies in the EU has grown significantly, a process often referred to in the EU legal scholarship as agencification. The trend has intensified since the Lisbon Treaty, which codified agencies as part of the EU’s institutional machinery. A new type of independent EU agency, endowed with considerable powers, has emerged, especially in the energy sector. This article focuses on the agencification phenomenon in the EU energy sector and, more specifically, the delegation of power and the use of institutional margins of discretion in that context. While agencies have a margin of discretion within which they can make decisions that have general application, this discretion should be limited to scientific and technical questions; questions of a political nature should fall outside that margin. From a practical point of view, the challenge is that the divide between what is technical or scientific and what is political is not always clear. The article argues that the delegated rule-making by Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulator (ACER) in the EU energy sector stretches the boundaries of the Meroni doctrine by subsuming questions that are not solely technical in nature but may involve political discretion as well.

Probing the role of hydrogen bond donors on the speciation and electrochemical behavior of Eu(III) in choline chloride-based DESs

This study explores the electrochemical properties and speciation of Eu(III) ions in choline chloride (ChCl)-based deep eutectic solvents (DESs), focusing on how different hydrogen bond donors—urea (U), ethylene glycol (EG), and malonic acid (MA)—influence the stability of europium complexes. Employing electrochemical methods, spectroscopic analysis, and theoretical approaches, the research examines how changes in hydrogen bonding during complexation affect Eu(III) coordination. Cyclic voltammetry highlights the role of complex formation and DES viscosity in controlling mass transport and electron transfer rates. Theoretical and experimental data show that the ChCl:1MA DES forms the most stable europium complex, driven by strong hydrogen bonding and robust Eu-DES interactions, as supported by optimized geometries and favorable electrochemical stability. This stability is further confirmed by the high negative binding and formation free energies of Eu(NO3)3·5H2O in all three DES systems. Photoluminescence spectroscopy reveals fluorophore formation due to interactions between hydrogen bonds and functional groups such as –NH2, –COOH, and –OH, enhancing the understanding of Eu3+-DES complexes for potential applications in materials science. By clarifying how hydrogen bond donors affect Eu(III) speciation and reactivity, this research advances lanthanide chemistry in DESs and opens avenues for designing Eu(III)-based materials with specialized properties for various technological uses.

Assessing the Sustainability of Agricultural Bioenergy Potential in the European Union

The present study aims to assess the sustainability of bioenergy potential from agriculture in the European Union in the period 2012–2021, with a particular focus on material flow and emissions management, bioenergy and recycling impacts, while assessing the potential of bioenergy from agriculture and analyzing the degree of self-sufficiency and import dependency in the biomass economy. While biomass has significant potential in the EU energy transition, its use is accompanied by challenges related to sustainability, carbon neutrality, efficiency and economic viability. Using a quantitative approach based on official statistical data, this research tracked the evolution of biomass imports, exports, domestic extraction and consumption, providing a comprehensive picture of the stability and adaptability of the biomass economy in the European Union. The results indicate a steady increase in domestic extraction and a stability in consumption, reflecting a high capacity of the European Union to manage biomass resources; thus, the degree of self-sufficiency has been high throughout the period, with a moderate dependence on imports, showing an adaptable economy. The conclusions suggest that in order to maintain this stability, the European Union must continue to develop balanced economic and environmental policies that support the sustainable use of biomass and contribute to the energy transition and environmental objectives.

Green syntheses of novel luminescent lanthanide compounds based on pentafluorobenzoate

Green syntheses employing aqueous solutions of lanthanide chloride, NaOH, and pentafluorobenzoic acid were successfully developed and produced pure dinuclear α-Ln compounds, [Ln(L)3(H2O)4]2·2H2O (L: pentafluorobenzoate) and new ones: η-Ln, Na[Ln(L)3(H2O)4]·L·2H2O, and θ-Ln, with Ln: Eu(III), Gd(III), and Tb(III). The synthesis becomes even greener when mechanochemistry is employed because it is quantitative, solvent-free, fast (30 min), and energy efficient. The θ-Ln compounds still have unknown composition and structure, so its description and properties are not explored. The η-Ln compounds are 1-D coordination polymer with only one bridging L, which leads to a large Ln···Ln distance (6.865 Å). Heteronuclear α-Ln0.50Ln0.50′ and η-LnxLn1−x′ compounds, with x = 0.05, 0.25, 0.50, and 0.75, Ln, Ln′: Eu, Tb, and Gd, have been synthesized by mixing the proper proportion of the lanthanide chlorides in the initial solution. The η-EuxTb1−x materials present Tb(III) → Eu(III) energy transfer, which confers interesting luminescent and photophysical properties with relevant potential applications. The color of the emission under UV irradiation can be tuned by the composition of the η-EuxTb1−x materials as well as by the excitation wavelength. In addition, it was observed a significant increase (ca. 35–260 %) of the D05 Eu(III) emission lifetime in the η-EuxTb1−x compounds by varying the excitation wavelength.

Towards Sustainable Strategies: Uncovering the Impact of Environmental Policies on Innovation Activities of Czech Firms

In recent years, there has been an increased emphasis on sustainable development worldwide, which has prompted governments to adopt environmental policies aimed at mitigating the adverse environmental impacts of economic activities. Among these strategies, the implementation of environmental policies has emerged as a key tool for promoting sustainable development. However, although these policies are created with good intentions, their impact on firms' innovation activities remains a matter of debate and research. The aim of this paper is to examine the impact of environmental policies on the innovation activities of Czech firms, with a particular focus on how these policies shape firms' strategies towards sustainable development. Given the growing emphasis on sustainability and environmental issues, it is necessary to examine how environmental policies can influence firms' overall innovation activities. 412 firms of different sizes were surveyed. And EU emissions trading and energy consumption emerged as the most influential variables with a positive impact.

THE EFFECTS OF RUSSIA-UKRAINE WAR ON UKRANIAN ENERGY SECURITY AND EUROPEAN ENERGY SUPPLY SECURITY

Energy has still drawn substantial attention for both developing and industrialised countries in the aspect of the needs of their economies, businesses and households. For Ukraine as a resource-rich economy, energy security and the efficiency of the energy sector are the bases for the national security of Ukraine. It has been triggered by the annexation of the Ukrainian Crimea by Russia and Russia-Ukraine war today. All these problems have urged Ukraine to determine modern energy policy and a national energy security model in the light of the concepts of energy security in the 21st century. As it is known, the energy crises between Russia and Ukraine directly affect the security of European Union energy supply in the context of natural gas flows. The main argument of this study is as follows: The Russia-Ukraine war has severely affected the energy security of Ukraine and this situation has led the European Union countries to finally consider taking steps to diversify the supply and to prevent further deterioration of the EU energy supply security. In this context, the article will analyse how the effects of the Russia-Ukraine war on Ukrainian energy security will affect EU energy supply security.

Self‐enforcing path dependent trajectories? A comparison of the implementation of the EU energy packages in Germany and the Netherlands

Self‐enforcing path dependent trajectories? A comparison of the implementation of the EU energy packages in Germany and the Netherlands

Elucidating the Mechanism of Efficient Eu(III) and Yb(III) Sensitisation from a Re(I) Tetrazolato Triangular Assembly.

The reaction of Re(CO)5Br with deprotonated 1H-(5-(2,2':6',2''-terpyridine)pyrid-2-yl)tetrazole yields a triangular assembly formed by tricarbonyl Re(I) vertices. Photophysical measurements reveal blue-green emission with a maximum at 520 nm, 32 % quantum yield, and 2430 ns long-lived excited state decay lifetime in deaerated dichloromethane solution. Coordination of lanthanoid ions to the terpyridine units red-shifts the emission to 570 nm and also reveals efficient (90 %) and fast sensitisation of both Eu(III) and Yb(III) at room temperature, with a similar rate constant kET on the order of 107 s-1. Efficient sensitisation of Eu(III) from Re(I) is unprecedented, especially when considering the close proximity in energy between the donor and acceptor excited states. On the other hand, comparative measurements at 77 K reveal that energy transfer to Yb(III) is two orders of magnitude slower than that to Eu(III). A two-step mechanism of sensitisation is therefore proposed, whereby the rate-determining step is a thermally activated energy transfer step between the Re(I) centre and the terpyridine functionality, followed by rapid energy transfer to the respective Ln(III) excited states. At 77 K, the direct Re(I) to Eu(III) energy transfer seems to proceed via a ligand-mediated superexchange Dexter-type mechanism.

The challenge of ratcheting up climate ambitions: Implementing the ‘experimentalist‘ EU energy and climate governance regulation

ABSTRACT The 2015 Paris climate Agreement established a ‘bottom-up’, pledge and review process as international climate governance’s central framework. The European Union’s governance framework – the Energy and Climate Governance Regulation (EUGR) – uses a similar architecture. Both require states to regularly create, revise and update national plans while ramping up ambitions towards meeting the collectively agreed commitments and sharing features of Experimentalist Governance. This paper contributes to the debate on experimentalist climate governance’s effectiveness. It assesses systematically the implementation of EUGR based on documentary analysis and expert interviews. We find that the process has been partially effective in raising ambitions but has remained incremental, technocratic and depoliticised. Experimentalist processes such as the EUGR and Paris Agreement require a high level of public and stakeholder engagement to operate but politicisation can have, in turn, adverse effects. This raises questions regarding the ability of experimentalist climate governance to deliver, alone, rapid emission reductions.

The energy transition paradox: How lithium extraction puts pressure on environment, society, and politics

Lithium-ion batteries are essential for Europe's renewable energy transition. By 2030, the EU will need 18 times more lithium, and by 2050, 60 times more. For that reason, Europe aims to increase domestic sourcing and achieve nearly full self-sufficiency by 2030. However, lithium mining has a high environmental footprint and can have severe social impacts. This research examines the socio-environmental implications of lithium mining for the EU energy transition and identifies leverage points that alleviate tension between justice and security. The Social, Technological, Economic, Environmental, and Political framework was used to systematically gather insights from experts representing various stakeholders on these issues. Subsequently, these insights were compiled into a fuzzy-cognitive map, creating a system-based overview and allow construction and comparison of four scenarios examining the future of lithium and its impacts on the environment and local communities in Europe. This reveals the importance of good governance to avoid issues of corruption and geopolitical tensions with a potential adverse impact on society and environment. However, governance alone is insufficient to mitigate negative impacts. A circular economy, where lithium is recovered from used batteries, is most favorable, reducing the demand for new material and the negative impacts of mining. This holistic overview stresses the need for increased government involvement, stakeholder alignment, and dealing with corruption as vital aspects in mitigating the negative socio-environmental impacts of lithium mining.

The diversification of energy resources and equipment imports in the European Union

Efforts to reduce dependence on energy imports and increase domestic energy generation are often linked to imports of energy-generation equipment, which may lead to security issues. This study analyses the European Union's imports of energy and energy technologies in 2013–2023 using a common methodology based on a set of indicators. The analysis encompasses both well-established import diversification indicators and an extended version of the Herfindahl–Hirschman index (HHI), which considers the political stability of import sources. The results indicate that, while the diversification of energy imports has increased in recent years (the extended HHI for imports of the generalised group of energy and fuel products decreased from 0.16 in 2017 to 0.1 in 2022), imports of energy equipment are becoming increasingly concentrated (the extended HHI for energy technology imports into the EU increased from 0.16 in 2017 to 0.55 in 2022). This trend is particularly evident in the case of solar and energy storage technologies, which represent a significant vulnerability in the context of technology imports. Import dependency may have adverse consequences for the EU's ambitious energy transformation agenda.

FAN PARAMETER ANALYS OF HEAT PUMP AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS WITH DIFFERENT HEAT EXCHANGERS CONFIGURATIONS.

The residential sector accounts for 27% of the EU's total energy consumption, and more than half is used for space conditioning, so improvements in this sector would contribute to achieving the sustainability goals set. Heat pumps (HP) have been presented as a good solution, as they are systems capable of satisfying air-conditioning needs in a more efficient way than systems based on fossil fuels; moreover, the REPowerEU Communication established the objective of doubling the current HP deployment rate in the next years. In this sense, designing and optimizing air conditioning systems is crucial. This study presents a method to determine the power and airflow parameters of a fan in a heat pump air conditioning system. The calculation is performed considering the pressure drop associated with the design of the heat exchangers using the IMST-ART simulation tool. This modeling aims to obtain simulations closer to the real behavior under different design conditions for the development of more efficient air conditioning systems

Advocating harder soft governance for the European Green Deal. Stakeholder perspectives on the revision of the EU governance regulation

The Governance Regulation is the central coordination instrument for the European Unions' energy and climate policy. The Regulation is scheduled for revision, as it is misaligned with the updated EU framework and exhibits implementation and enforcement deficits. Our analysis reviews 136 submissions of institutional stakeholders participating in the European Commission's public consultations on the Governance Regulation and interlinked sectoral legislation. Employing a combined quantitative and qualitative text analysis, we examine the most salient issues for different stakeholder groups. We focus on stakeholder demands that address the implementation and enforcement deficits by introducing harder soft governance elements. While we find broad support among stakeholder groups for a revision and the improvement of implementation, Public Authorities exhibit reluctance for further binding elements, with the exception of demands for more precise enforcement mechanisms. While the inclusion of harder soft governance is only of subsidiary interest for non-public stakeholders demands for stronger obligations (e.g. binding national targets), justifications and public participation can be identified. The analysis finally discusses how the further introduction of harder soft governance elements has the potential to advance the EU's energy and climate framework.

EU emissions trading in the buildings sector – an ex-ante assessment

ABSTRACT The EU ETS is one of the first emissions trading schemes in the world and has contributed to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the sectors covered by the scheme in recent years. The EU has adopted the introduction of a new, separate emissions trading scheme (ETS 2) for the buildings and transport sectors as well additional sectors. In our paper we estimate the impact of the new ETS 2 on the buildings sector. We calculate the greenhouse gas emission reduction in the year 2030 using an approach based on price elasticities. We further discuss the impact of the ETS 2 on cost-effectiveness of heat pump deployment in the EU Member States to outline an example of longer-term effects on investments. The results show that with a carbon price of 45 Euro per ton the impact ranges between three and seven Million tons of greenhouse gas emission reductions. Even with optimistic assumptions on the reaction of building owners, the overall contribution of the ETS 2 to meeting the EU target for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the year 2030 is limited. The results furthermore show that the carbon price needed to make heat pumps competitive in the use phase differs largely between the Member States, where in three Member States the required level exceeds 100€/t CO2eq. We conclude that in addition to carbon pricing under the ETS 2, a strong policy framework is needed for the transition of the buildings sector. Key policy insights The new carbon pricing scheme in ETS 2 contributes to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in buildings in the EU, however its impact on the EU energy and climate targets for the year 2030 is limited. Carbon pricing supports the diffusion of heat pumps, however a price of 45 €/t is insufficient to make heat pumps competitive even in the operation phase in several countries. Due to the low price elasticities and the long investment cycles in the buildings sector, a strong policy mix is needed in addition to carbon pricing.

EU Energy Transition Against the Russian-Ukrainian Conflict: Based on the Concerns of Chinese Academia

The outbreak of the Russian-Ukrainian conflict in 2022 has profoundly affected and reshaped the energy transition process established by the EU. For a long time, the EU has adopted a parallel policy of importing natural gas and developing renewable energy. However, the outbreak of the Russian-Ukrainian conflict has forced the EU to re-examine the energy transition, significantly raise awareness of energy security, lower the priority of addressing climate change goals, and seek diversified energy supply paths. In this context, the concerns of Chinese academia about the EU’s energy transition have shifted from economic issues to energy security and geopolitics, which guides references and cooperation for China’s energy transition.

Power Through Pressure: How Interconnection Became Part of the EU's Overarching Climate and Energy Policy

AbstractInterconnection is important to attain several important EU climate and energy targets. Drawing on data from 56 stakeholder interviews, stakeholder event participation and document studies, this study enquires as to why electricity interconnection became a part of the EU's overarching climate and energy policy in 2014. The theoretical approaches liberal intergovernmentalism (LI) and the advocacy coalition framework (ACF) are tested complementarily. LI received support: member states, particularly Portugal and Spain, were essential for the outcome. These successfully played the veto card in the high‐level negotiations for the 2030 Climate and Energy Policy Framework, leading to the first inclusion of concrete interconnection targets in it and interconnection becoming a European Commission priority. ACF received partial support: a ‘green’ long‐term, multi‐level advocacy coalition consisting of the renewables industry, environmental organisations and others promoted a binding target for electricity interconnection. This ‘green’ advocacy coalition was instrumental in aiding Portugal and Spain.