European Union Conditionality Research Articles

The Evaluation of the Serbia-Kosovo Crisis from the Perspective of the European Union's Conditionality Principle

Bu çalışma, Avrupa Birliği’nin Sırbistan’la olan üyelik sürecindeki ilişkilerini ve bu ilişkileri yürütürken koşulluluk ilkesini, Sırbistan-Kosova krizinin çözümünde ve iki taraf arasındaki diyaloğun sürdürülmesinde kullanma yöntemini ele almayı amaçlamıştır. Avrupa Birliği, üyelik sürecinde koşulluluk ilkesini her devlete özgü farklılıklar arz ederek bu ilkeyi devletler nezdinde farklılaştırmıştır. Dolayısıyla koşulluluk ilkesi, üyelik sürecindeki her bir aday devlet için ayrı ayrı işletilmiştir. Bu noktada çalışmanın üzerinde durduğu temel varsayım, 1980’lerin sonlarında ortaya çıkan Sırbistan-Kosova krizinin, 2009’da Sırbistan’ın AB’ye üyelik başvurusunda bulunmasından sonra koşulluluk ilkesi bağlamında çatışmaya dönüştürmediği ve taraflar arasındaki diyalog sürecinin yaşandığı yönündedir. Sonuç olarak 2009’dan bugüne kadar olan süreçte Avrupa Birliği’nin koşulluluk ilkesinin, Sırbistan-Kosova krizinin çözümünde etkili olduğu, ara sıra taraflar arasında sorunlar yaşansa da en azından bu sorunları çatışmaya dönüştürmediği söylenebilir.

GEÇMİŞLE YÜZLEŞMEK: AVRUPA BİRLİĞİ SÜRECİNDE ARNAVUTLUK ÖRNEĞİ

Post-communist countries’ processes on their way to the European Union (EU) have extensively proceeded simultaneously with their transition from communism to democracy. The regime change led to a process of “coming to terms with the past” in the sense that these countries took transitional justice measures for the crimes and practices of the former authoritarian regimes. In this regard, Albania is a case worth considering as a part of the current EU enlargement agenda. As a country that was not involved in the ethnic wars between the former Yugoslavian countries, Albania experienced a different historical pace of a communist past with its peculiarities. This article mainly aims to analyse Albania’s coming to terms with its communist past and thus the transitional justice measures implemented in its EU process. The main argument of the article is twofold: First, EU impact was limited when Albania started its transitional justice period in the 1990s. This was due to the fact that progress in the EU process of Albania in terms of EU candidacy was enhanced in the 2000s and the impact of the strict EU conditionality became evident in these years as well. Secondly, the current international circumstances, in which the rivalry between Russia as well as China, and the West is at its peak in the so-called Western Balkans region, could allow Albania to be more closely aligned with the EU, which in turn may provide the necessary conditions for deeper reforms to come to terms with its past.

Bureaucratic Migration Politics in West Africa: Opportunities and Dependencies Created by EU Funding

This article delves into the role of bureaucrats and administrations in the development of national migration policies in West Africa. Based upon 87 interviews conducted in Accra, Dakar, and Brussels, it argues that the process of developing migration policies in Ghana and Senegal exhibits features of “bureaucratic politics.” West African bureaucracies have gained more national policy-making agency, due to the opportunities created by external funding from the European Union (EU) and the International Organization for Migration. EU funding fostered the policy expertise of local officials and provided certain administrative branches with resources to grow. In the process, bureaucracies in Ghana and Senegal have become more receptive to developing national migration policies and adapting to the EU external migration agenda. These findings add to an often-heard assumption in the literature about EU conditionality in its migration policy with non-EU countries — namely, that adaption to EU standards may be determined by not only the rewards given to foreign governments but also by the donors’ ability to establish a longer-term engagement with the bureaucracy. The research also demonstrates that EU migration cooperation reinforces the typical pattern of the postcolonial state, wherein the bureaucracy is funded by the state and external donors. The article addresses a gap in research on EU migration cooperation with the Global South and acknowledges the role of domestic bureaucracies in maintaining dependent postcolonial relationships with the EU in the realm of migration governance.

Chemical treatment of straw for ruminant feeding with NaOH or urea – investigative steps via practical application under current European Union conditions

Weather extremes in parts of Europe have led to a renewed search for alternative feeds for ruminants. Cereal straw presents one source of fibre, which is hard to digest due to its lignin-carbohydrate complexes. Chemical and biological treatments have been investigated to improve digestibility. Here, the applicability of alkaline treatments for farming conditions under EU legislation and their efficacy were checked. Thus, we tested caustic soda (60, 120 g kg-1straw) and urea (15, 30, 45, 60 g kg-1 straw without and with urease addition) applications both at laboratory scale and using a mixer-wagon. The nutritive value was evaluated analyzing chemical parameters including fibre components and estimating in vitro digestibility. The in vitro digestibility indicated by gas production, enzymatically soluble substrate and neutral detergent fibre digestibility (30h) was highest for the NaOH treatments, which did not differ by dose. Remoistening the straw to 600 g DM kg-1 was a precondition for the effectiveness of both treatments. Urease addition enhanced the intended ammonification when urea was applied at ≥ 30 g kg-1. An ambient temperature for urea treatment ≥ 25 °C was necessary and had to be maintained for at least 14 d post treatment. The determination of crude ash in NaOH treated feeds by the standard procedure and time overestimated the mineral fraction and had to be modified. This systematic approach provides guidance for feasible straw treatments for EU farmers. However, trials for feed acceptance and in vivo digestibility are needed to demonstrate the real effect in animals.

Performance of tasks related to state security in the European Union conditions by the President of the Republic of Poland

The subject of the article is to consider the theoretical and practical possibilities of the President of the Republic of Poland to perform his constitutional tasks in the area of state security. The presented analysis takes into account the legal and institutional conditions resulting from Poland’s membership in the European Union.

Let's lessen conditionality in times of force majeure events. The archaic righteousness of the policy of conditionality of international Institutions amid COVID-19

This article investigates how international decision-making's conditionality aids countries during strenuous economic conditions imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic. It examines and contrasts the European Union's conditionality policies, the International Monetary Fund, and the World Bank as the more influential and leading groups of institutions. The article reveals notable policy differences. As opposed to that of the IMF and WB, the EU's approach is more comprehensive and not confined to economic considerations. Those variations aside, the article draws on the same premise: expectations of compliance with the set conditions. While in-depth, structural requirements could guide ordinary decision-making and build up resilient national institutions and policies, this article questions the merits of large-scale comprehensive terms in the face of a situation created by a force majeure or a humanly uncontrollable event such as the COVID-19 pandemic. With no more initial research addressing the specific question of the application and adequacy of conditionality to force majeure emergencies or pandemic situations of the scale of COVID-19, this article argues in favor of a measured and targeted response limited to the development, design, or determination of policy choices that tackle the intended purpose. Also, for validly practical considerations that search for to ensure the better use of aid and avoid distracting or overburdening the recipient countries to the point of risking losses of devastating proportions, the article proposes to revise and limit conditionality during force majeure events to the essential aspects of transparent management of funds for the sole intended purpose. This in itself is a distinct democratic exercise of efficient and accountable public management decision-making.

Identification of Neutralization of the CMR Documents in European Union Conditions

Year 1956 was an important year for international road and freight transport. By this year Convention on the Contract for the International Carriage of Goods by Road (CMR) was made. The basic purpose of the Convention was to unify the rules in the international carriage of goods and thereby promote development of international trade. From the practical point of view, this was very important for both carriers and transporters. This Convention also describes the most important document in the international carriage of goods, which includes the consignment note of CMR as well. Recently this document is often associated with the term neutralization. Objective of this article was to clarify the meaning of this phrase in transport. In addition, the aim was to find out in what range carriers have real experience with neutralization of the consignment note of the CMR during the transport, for what types of goods and on what types of routes is the neutralization being used the most.

Transformation All the Way Down? European Union Integration and the Professional Socialization of Municipal Health Officials in Serbia

AbstractThis article assesses whether different types of exposure to European Union (EU) modes of socialization are associated with differences in attitudes towards corruption, using Serbia as case study. Drawing on a survey of Serbian municipal health‐care officials, the article complements existing research on the impact of EU conditionality on attitudes at the national level, while also contributing to the understanding of the impact of domestic variables on Europeanization. Thus, the article's contribution to the wider literature is to interrogate the premise that in order to deliver substantive reform, attitudes and practices need to be changed via exposure to EU tutelage and processes. Our data suggest that the type of interaction that officials have with the EU and its processes matters. While those involved in EU harmonization activities were significantly more critical of clientelistic behaviour, there is no significant association between attitudes and doing daily EU‐related work or attending EU training.

ANALYSIS OF CHANGE IN PARTY POSITIONS TOWARDS THE EUROPEAN UNION AGENDA IN SERBIA

Following many years of political competition in Serbia between reformists and nationalists, critical presidential and parliamentary elections were held in 2008 during the unilateral declaration of independence of Kosovo by Albanians in the shadow of the European Union (EU) agenda. 2008 elections reshaped party politics in favour of pro-Europeanism. This article analyses the change in party positions towards EU membership with the help of “process analysis” by referring to the independent variables of compliance, identification, and internalization, modelled by Herbert Kelman. The study focuses on following political parties that have shaped Serbian politics for a long time: The Democratic Party of Serbia (Demokratska Stranka Srbije - DSS), the Democratic Party (Demokratska Stranka - DS), the Serbian Progressive Party (Srpska Napredna Stranka-SNS), and the Socialist Party of Serbia (Socijalistička Partija Srbije - SPS). Contrary to arguments, which suggest that party positions have changed due to EU conditionality with the help of internalisation variable; this article argues that for SNS and SPS “compliance”, for DSS and DS “identification” variable offers a more comprehensive causal explanation.

Pest categorisation of Little cherry pathogen (non-EU isolates).

The EFSA Panel on Plant Health performed a pest categorisation of non‐EU isolates of the Little cherry pathogen (LCP) for the European Union (EU) territory. LCP is now known to be in fact two distinct, well characterised viruses, Little cherry virus 1 (LChV1) and Little cherry virus 2 (LChV2) collectively referred to here as LChV. Efficient molecular detection assays are available for both viruses but not to discriminate EU and non‐EU isolates. LChV are transmitted by vegetative multiplication of infected hosts and, for LChV2, by mealybug vectors. LChV are reported from a range of countries, both outside and within the EU. Non‐EU isolates are not known to occur in the EU and therefore do not meet one of the criteria for being a Union regulated non‐quarantine pest. The host ranges of LChV are restricted to Prunus species, in particular cultivated and ornamental cherries. LChV non‐EU isolates are listed for some, but not all hosts, in Annex IIAI of Directive 2000/29/EC. LChV isolates are expected to be able to enter and establish in the EU. They have the potential to subsequently spread through plants for planting and, for LChV2, through the action of the Phenacoccus aceris vector, which is present in many EU MS. LChV are able to cause severe symptoms in some cherry varieties while others are less affected. Overall, non‐EU LChV isolates meet all the criteria evaluated by EFSA to qualify as Union quarantine pests. However, given the currently limited impact of EU LChV isolates, the impact of non‐EU isolates, if introduced, could be similarly limited. The main knowledge gaps and uncertainties concern (1) whether EU and non‐EU isolates of LChV might differ in their biology, epidemiology or symptomatology, (2) efficiency of natural spread by vectors under EU conditions and (3) extent of symptoms caused on many EU‐grown varieties.

Pest categorisation of Cadang-Cadang viroid.

The EFSA Panel on Plant Health performed a pest categorisation of Cadang‐Cadang viroid for the European Union (EU) territory. Coconut cadang‐cadang viroid (CCCVd) is a well‐known viroid for which efficient molecular detection assays are available. It is transmitted by vegetative multiplication of infected hosts, by seed and pollen and, possibly, by the action of unknown vector(s). CCCVd is reported from a few countries in Asia and is not known to occur in the EU. It therefore does not meet one of the criteria for being a Union regulated non‐quarantine pest. The host range of CCCVd is restricted to Arecaceae species (palms), in particular coconut and it is listed on all known hosts in Annex IIAI of Directive 2000/29/EC. CCCVd is expected to be able to enter in the EU and to be able to establish in the open in the southernmost regions of the EU and elsewhere under protected cultivation. It has the potential to subsequently spread via plants for planting and possibly other mechanisms. CCCVd is able to cause severe symptoms in some Arecaceae species while others seem less affected. The potential impact of CCCVd if introduced in the EU is very difficult to assess. Given that the spread potential is, as for other viroids, likely to be limited, the potential impact is estimated to be limited in extent but this judgement is affected by large uncertainties. Overall, CCCVd meets all the criteria evaluated by EFSA to qualify as Union quarantine pest. The main knowledge gaps concern (1) the relationships between CCCVd‐related RNAs and CCCVd, (2) the origin and volume of the trade in palm seeds and plants for planting imported in the EU (3) the efficiency of natural spread under EU conditions and (4) host status and susceptibility of many palm species grown in the EU.

Talk the talk, or walk the walk? Changing narratives in Europeanization research

Abstract Over the past two decades, there has been a growing interest in Europeanization, both within and beyond the European Union (EU). The impact of Eastern enlargement in 2004 on candidate and neighbourhood countries has attracted scholarly attention, and a consensus currently exists on the success of the EU’s transformative power through the employment of a conditionality mechanism. However, the limits of EU conditionality upon candidate countries and neighbourhood Europeanization, in addition to the problems experienced by the EU itself, have brought into question whether the end of Europeanization research is in sight. Considering this, we critically evaluate the issues discussed in the scholarship on Europeanization and review several points of interest in relation to EU candidate countries in the Western Balkans as well as Turkey.

Policy governance from an autopoietic perspective: revisiting Hungary’s regionalization experience

ABSTRACTThis perspective on Hungary’s post-socialist regional policy governance is informed by an approach that relates region-building and regional governance to social autopoiesis and the self-referential and self-(re)producing nature of social systems such as states. Following debates in regional studies that reflect tensions between the local constitution and external determination of regional governance, we will demonstrate how Hungary has incorporated European Union (EU) policy frameworks through specific appropriations of territorial politics and regional ideas. These appropriations reflect Hungary’s post-socialist transformation not only in terms of responses to global forces, but also as specific spatial practices and regionalization experiences. As we argue, this has in effect resulted in a regionalism without regions – a strategy of Europeanizing territorial politics without creating institutional structures that directly challenge existing power relations. Autopoiesis thus helps explain the resilience of social systems, not only their resistance to institutional change but also their capability to ‘domesticate’ external influences. While criticisms of Hungary’s technocratic and post-political regionalization projects cannot be ignored, our analysis indicates why externally driven intervention in self-organizing governance processes, for example through EU conditionality, has had less impact than expected.

The Impact of EU Political Conditionality on Minority Rights in Western Balkans: Insights from the Croatian Enlargement

Abstract The present paper addresses the following questions: In what way have the European Union (EU) political conditionality affect minority rights in the Western Balkan (WB) region? Did the EU political conditionality on minority issues succeed in addressing the stateness problems in Croatia? With the term “impact” I mean the absorption of formal and informal rules, procedures, norms and practices and I am going to analyze the relation European Union/Western Balkans as unidirectional i.e. the transposing of EU rules on accession countries. In the first part of this work I will analyse the EU standard of minority rights (internal dimension) and compare it with the norm ‘content’ in its external dimension. In the second part, the EU approach concerning minority rights toward the WB region, will be explored. In order to do so I will analyse the Enlargement Strategy and Main Challenges produced by the European Commission (EC) from 2004. In the above document the EC emphasize the main challenges and set out the priorities for the whole region, considered as a single entity. In Western Balkans region we do have an example of recent accession. For this reason, the empirical analysis of this paper will focus on the pre-accession process of one of the new member states, Croatia. In the end I will draw some conclusions concerning the future prospects of the WB region concerning the EU conditionality and the real impact of minority right in the process.

The Impact of the European Union on the Democratization of Civil-Military Relations in Turkey

This paper investigates the influence of Turkey’s European Union (EU) candidature on its civil-military relations. It argues that EU conditionality and adaptation pressure for the convergence and alignment of Turkey’s authoritarian political regime to the EU acquis communautaire have resulted in the democratization of civil-military relations and the empowerment of government in the Turkish political system. The findings indicate that harmonization reforms have deinstitutionalized and illegalized the coercive influence of the military in the Turkish political system and empowered the government in political decision-making by: (a) changing the functions, duties and composition of the National Security Council (NSC), (b) increasing the parliamentary control over, and transparency in, defense and military expenditure, and the civil judiciary control over the military, and (c) increasing the public support and trust to the civil institutions. It utilizes Europeanization, and the rational choice and historical versions of the new institutionalist theory as its theoretical framework.

The Limits of the European Union's Transformative Power: Pathologies of Europeanization and Rule of Law Reform in Central and Eastern Europe

This thesis examines the impact of the European Union (EU) on the development of the rule of law in Central and Eastern Europe. The topic is addressed through a mixed methods study which consists of a quantitative comparative analysis of three country groups from Central and Eastern Europe (1. Central Europe and the Baltics, CEB; 2. South Eastern Europe, SEE; 3.Commonwealth of Independent States, CIS) and three qualitative case studies on Poland, Romania and Moldova. The empirical analysis is based on an innovative set of indicators and revealing insights from numerous qualitative interviews.The findings of the study suggest that the impact of the EU is differential, both healthy and pathological. While EU-driven judicial reforms increase judicial capacity and align domestic legislation with European and international standards (substantive legality), they do not improve and even lead to a deterioration of judicial impartiality and formal legality, resulting in several reform pathologies, such as instable, incoherent and non-enforced laws and in more politicized and incoherent judicial systems, which undermine the development of the rule of law. These pathological effects occur mostly in weak rule of law countries from SEE (Romania) and CIS (Moldova), in contrast to more healthy effects in advanced, strong rule of law countries from CEB (Poland).The dissimilar development in the rule of law across countries is explained in relation to the conduct of reforms. Successful reformers like Poland, which consolidate the rule of law, have strong and independent horizontal accountability institutions (e.g. Constitutional Court, Ombudsman, judiciary), which mitigate or alleviate reform pathologies and ensure that reforms are conducted in an accountable, gradual and non-politicized way. Unsuccessful reformers, like Romania and Moldova, lack these independent checks on reformers and thus fail to establish the rule of law. Based on the findings from the case studies an original typology of healthy and pathological reform paths is proposed, which draws on the logic of circular and cumulative causation and emphasizes the mutual reinforcement between domestic conditions and the reform approach of transnational coalitions. The proposed typology implies that EU conditionality is not transformative, but rather reinforces existing healthy and pathological reform paths, thus cementing the existing divergence in the rule of law across post-communist countries. This thesis further makes several policy recommendations to remedy the pathological impact of donor-driven reforms.

Europeanization of Foreign-Aid Policy in Central and East Europe: The Role of EU, External Incentives and Identification in Foreign-Aid Policy Adoption in Latvia and Slovenia 1998–2010

This article enters in dialogue with the findings of the ‘Europeanization East’ literature that the Central and Eastern European countries adjusted to the European Union (EU) policies due to the overwhelming effect of the EU pre-accession conditionality. It is examined here whether this conclusion also applies to the foreign-aid policy adoption in two candidate states: Slovenia and Latvia. Also, the post-accession performance is studied to draw conclusions about what factors can account for the continuation of the policy evolution from 2004 to 2010. It is argued here that EU conditionality was present also in the foreign-aid policy area, but it was vague and not the only factor that mattered. Moreover, it is claimed here that identification and social influence can explain why the countries adopted foreign-aid policy in the pre-accession period and why they continued the policy even after accession.

Europeanisation and Conflict Resolution: The Case of Cyprus

This paper investigates the example of Cyprus as a case study for the Europeanisation of conflict resolution. The argument advanced is that the European Union (EU) impacts the positions of the parts of the conflict (here, Greek Cypriots, Turkish Cypriots and Turkey) but not always towards the resolution of the dispute and compliance with EU conditionality. Conformity with EU conditionality depends on its credibility, which is decreased by the internalisation of the conflict into the EU. In this context, this work contributes to the discussion on Europeanisation and the aptitude of the EU in conflict resolution as well as the role of the EU in the Cyprus conflict during the post-accession years.

Analytical and Numerical Proposal for Designing Plastic Vessels

The article in question concerns the proposal of a pressure vessel for a water heater made of plastic materials. At present, new materials and technologies are coming to the fore where the product price, above all, plays an important role, taking into account the relevant physical and strength properties. The pressure vessels of larger volume (more than 10 litres) water heaters are only manufactured using steel materials under European Union conditions. The proposal considers the use of an alternative material, namely plastic. By optimising the proposal – by the use of plastic materials – it would be possible to achieve a financial economy, since plastic is a good thermal insulating material and does not require enamelling or the use of a cathode protection. There are plastics available on the market which meet the requirements of heat resistance and have a relatively high tensile strength. One of these proposed materials is Noryl GFN1630V which contains 30 % of glass fibre and was chosen as the optimal material. By making strength calculations in the ANSYS programme, water heater pressure vessels were proposed.

An Overview of the Administrative Court and of the Law of Its Establishment in the Republic of Albania

Administrative Adjudication is the guarantee of effective protection of subjective rights and legitimate interests of the people through a fair trial and within quick and reasonable terms. The establishment of Administrative Court in Albania was a necessity with the sole purpose of creating a more peaceful climate for the progress of the reports between Public Administration and Private Entities. The need for judicial control of the Administrative activity derives from the principle of the the Rule of Law, the latter led by the principle that the subjective rights of citizens should be protected, not only against other people, but also against the Public Administration. This paper addresses the necessity of establishing the Administrative Court and its role in the Republic of Albania, refered to the law for its creation. The activity of the Administrative Court, Administrative Law principles and innovations of this law are analysed here. An important part of this paper is the necessity of creating the Administrative Court referred to the efforts of the EU countries to unify the adoption of a law on Administrative Law. The establishment of this court has also been one of the conditions for the Integration in the European Community. In the context of reforms in the field of Justice and the Legal Administrative Reform in Albania suggested by the European Union conditions have been set for obtaining the Status of an EU candidate country. One of these conditions was also the establishment of the Administrative Court, as the Administrative Justice plays an important role for the economic development of a country. DOI: 10.5901/ajis.2014.v3n3p177